History Assignment代写范文：The industrialisation experience of great britain and france
History Assignment代写范文-英国和法国的工业化经验。本文是一篇由本站代写服务提供的留学生历史学assignment代写范文，主要内容是讲述英国和法国在1700年可以相提并论，都建立了商业、贸易和手工业。然而，工业只占经济活动的一小部分，农业是主导部门。到1900年，由于各国工业化进程的性质，英国和法国之间出现了明显的差异。本篇assignment指出工业化可以粗略地定义为第二产业的扩张，包括制造业和加工业。随着英国和法国的工业化，两国都经历了人口增长、交通方式的变化和重大政治事件，所有这些都影响了其经济增长的程度。下面就一起来看一下这篇History Assignment代写范文的具体内容。
Great Britain and France were comparable in 1700, both had established commerce, trade and a handicraft industry. Industry however accounted for a small amount of economic activity, with agriculture being the dominating sector. By 1900, there were noticeable differences between Britain and France, due to the nature of each nation’s process of industrialisation. Industrialisation can loosely be defined as the expansion of the secondary sector, which comprises of manufacturing and processing. As both Britain and France industrialised, each experienced population growth, changing transport methods and significant political events, all of which influenced the extent of their economic growth.
Agriculture in England was becoming increasingly market based towards the end of the 17th century, as a result agriculture became innovative, benefiting from economies of scale. The pursuit of increasing agricultural productivity and trade was supported by the British aristocrats and landowners, a characteristic that was less common in France and continental Europe at the time. There were a number of major technological innovations such as the improved land draining techniques and the addition of two fodder crops. Mathius (2001) highlights that from 1750, technological progress of agriculture was stimulated by increasing demand for food and different practices introduced from enclosure. Perhaps the most significant force that distinguished Britain’s so-called “agricultural revolution” was a parliamentary enclosure movement. The political-economic system in England shifted from consisting of feudalism to a market system. Under feudalism people were bound to land and their lord. Montoux (1962) states that although conditions were poor for labourers, the English labourer was better fed, housed and dressed than any other in Europe. O’ Brien (1998) summarised the contrast in France as small plots of land controlled by large numbers of peasants At the end of the 17th century, France had considerably more farmers producing at a subsistence level, leading to high levels of underemployment.
17世纪末，英格兰的农业越来越以市场为基础，因此农业变得创新，受益于规模经济。英国贵族和土地所有者支持提高农业生产力和贸易，这在当时的法国和欧洲大陆并不常见。有一些重大的技术创新，如改进了土地排水技术和增加了两种饲料作物。Mathius强调，从1750年起，对粮食的需求增加和圈地引入的不同做法刺激了农业的技术进步。本篇assignment认为也许英国所谓的“农业革命”最重要的力量是议会圈地运动。英国的政治经济体制从封建主义向市场体制转变。在封建制度下，人们被束缚在土地和他们的领主身上。Montoux指出，尽管工人的条件很差，但英国工人的饮食、住房和穿着都比欧洲任何其他工人都好。O’Brien将法国的对比总结为由大量农民控制的小块土地。17世纪末，法国有相当多的农民以维持生计的水平生产，导致了高水平的就业不足。
Allen (2004) states that at the start of the 19th century, agricultural labour productivity was one third higher in England than France. Importantly the productivity gains in agriculture freed labour from agriculture to join the industrial workforce.
Allen指出，在19世纪初，英国的农业劳动生产率比法国高出三分之一。重要的是，农业生产力的提高使劳动力从农业中解放出来，加入工业劳动力队伍。
Both Britain and France had established commerce, trade and a handicraft industry. During the 18th century there was a surge in technological innovations, aiming to labour-save and efficiency. These inventions were complementary between sectors, such as the steam engine being applied to stationary applications and transport applications. The centre of the technological surge was England, with a good environment for entrepreneurs to take risks and work hard (Bruland, 2004). Jacquard’s loom was a notable French innovation that was used in textile manufacturing, other French innovations benefited industries such as the steel and aluminium (Cameron and Neal, 2003). France was Britain’s greatest threat to being the world’s leading economy. France being the larger country both geographically and in terms of population size. However, Price (1990) compares Britain and France in 1780, stating it was clear Britain was leading industrial nation, having 20,000 working mills compared with 900 working mills in France.
英国和法国都建立了商业、贸易和手工业。在18世纪，旨在节省劳动力和提高效率的技术创新激增。这些发明在各个领域之间是互补的，例如应用于固定应用和运输应用的蒸汽机。技术激增的中心是英格兰，那里有一个良好的环境，企业家可以冒险并努力工作。Jacquard织机是法国一项引人注目的创新，用于纺织制造业，其他法国创新使钢铁和铝等行业受益。本篇assignment提出法国是英国成为世界领先经济体的最大威胁。法国在地理位置和人口规模上都是较大的国家。然而，Price在1780年将英国和法国进行了比较，指出英国显然是领先的工业国家，拥有20000个工厂，而法国有900个工厂。
Barker (1990) cites Britain’s utilisation of natural advantages such as waterways as a reason why it became the first industrial nation. Goods were easy to transport due to it being a narrow island and containing many rivers. Smith (1981, p33) recognised the importance of water transport: “As by means of water-carriage, a more extensive market is opened to every sort of industry than what land-carriage alone can afford”. France had a large network of roman roads, which had been well maintained. Britain in comparison had a poor network of roads, many of which had fallen into decay. However the condition of roads in Britain improved during 1750-1790, particularly those linking emerging cities. The growth of transport played a large role in economic development, connecting demand and supply, promoting allocative efficiency and increasing competition.
本篇assignment认为英国利用水道等自然优势作为其成为第一个工业国家的原因。货物运输很容易，因为它是一个狭窄的岛屿，包含许多河流。Smith认识到了水上运输的重要性：“通过水上运输，向各种行业开放了一个比陆地运输更广泛的市场”。法国有一个庞大的罗马公路网，这些公路得到了很好的维护。相比之下，英国的道路网络较差，其中许多已经破败不堪。然而，1750-1790年间，英国的道路状况有所改善，尤其是连接新兴城市的道路。交通运输的增长在经济发展、连接需求和供应、提高配置效率和增加竞争中发挥了重要作用。
Coal had become the most in demand fuel in Britain in the 18th century, this was due to not only the demand from growing industry but also because of the shortage of an alternative fuel, wood. Wood became short in supply in Britain, however at the time in France the problem was less serious. French coal resources were discovered in inconvenient locations often far from cities or waterways leading to areas of importance. This meant transport costs were quite high for coal in France. Despite setbacks coal production in France grew from 1,772,800 tons in 1828 to 5,153,000 tons in 1847. Pig iron production grew much faster in Britain, production increasing to 1,600,000 tons between 1828 and 1847. French production of pig iron only grew 300,000 tons in the same period. After the Napoleonic Wars, which ended in 1815, causing national bankruptcy, France lacked skilled labour and capital. This meant France had to import and become dependent on expertise and capital from Britain, however they faced competition from Belgium. Belgium managed to acquire more British expertise and capital than France, mostly due to Belgium enjoying a better political and trading relationship with Britain.
在18世纪，煤炭已成为英国需求量最大的燃料，这不仅是因为不断增长的工业的需求，还因为替代燃料木材的短缺。英国的木材供应短缺，但当时法国的问题没有那么严重。法国的煤炭资源是在不方便的地方发现的，通常远离通往重要地区的城市或水道。这意味着法国的煤炭运输成本相当高。尽管遭遇挫折，法国的煤炭产量仍从1828年的1772800吨增长到1847年的5153000吨。英国的生铁产量增长更快，1828年至1847年间产量增加到160万吨。同期，法国的生铁产量仅增长了30万吨。拿破仑战争于1815年结束，导致国家破产，法国缺乏熟练的劳动力和资本。本篇assignment认为这意味着法国不得不进口并依赖英国的专业知识和资本，但他们面临着来自比利时的竞争。比利时设法获得了比法国更多的英国专业知识和资本，这主要是因为比利时与英国有着更好的政治和贸易关系。
The first intercity railway was developed in Britain in 1830, connecting Manchester and Liverpool. Railways provided fastest distribution of goods. Britain, by 1850, had 10,500km of railway line open while France only had 3,000km open. Political troubles during 1848-52 prevented French railways expanding. In 1870, a change in railway policy in both France and the newly unified Germany meant both countries rail networks became connected, promoting trade. Before the introduction of a rail network, France lacked a reliable form of transport, this resulted in price fluctuations and uncertainty (Price, 1975). A growing rail network benefited the French economy and society, as rural communities were no longer isolated. It had great impact on the coal industry, as it removed the high transport costs that were incurred before. By 1874, coal production reached 15,400,000 tons and by 1914 production was 39,900,000 tons. Price (1975) argues that the introduction of railway in France stimulated its coal production as well as the economy in general. The large increase in the production and use of coal in the latter stages of the 19th century marked the turning point for the French economy.
英国于1830年开发了第一条城际铁路，连接曼彻斯特和利物浦。铁路提供了最快的货物配送。到1850年，英国开通了10500公里的铁路线，而法国只开通了3000公里。1848-52年间的政治问题阻碍了法国铁路的扩张。1870年，法国和新统一的德国的铁路政策发生了变化，这意味着两国的铁路网相互连接，促进了贸易。在引入铁路网之前，法国缺乏可靠的运输方式，这导致了价格波动和不确定性。本篇assignment指出随着农村社区不再孤立，不断增长的铁路网使法国经济和社会受益。它消除了以前产生的高昂运输成本，对煤炭行业产生了巨大影响。到1874年，煤炭产量达到1540万吨，到1914年产量为3990万吨。Price认为，法国铁路的引入刺激了其煤炭生产和整体经济。19世纪后期煤炭产量和使用量的大幅增长标志着法国经济的转折点。
A characteristic that Britain and France shared at the end of the 17th century and the centuries preceding were that population was static. However during the 18th and 19th centuries, there was a dramatic increase in population size. The benefit of a growing population is an increase in the supply of labour and, from the producer’s view, consumers. Britain and France experienced large population growth, but the growth was much larger and faster in Britain. In 1801, France could boast larger towns than Britain. Paris, Marseilles and Lyon each were containing a population size greater than 100,000. During 1801-51, Britain experienced rapid population growth in urban areas. In a single decade, 1821-31, Leeds, Sheffield, Birmingham, Manchester and Liverpool all experienced a population increase of at least 40%. The increasing numbers of people in these British cities was not just from higher birth rates but also from rural-urban migration. France’s low levels of economic growth can be attributed to its slow population growth and the slow growth of its towns.
英国和法国在17世纪末及其前几个世纪的一个共同特点是人口是停滞的。然而，在18世纪和19世纪，人口规模急剧增加。人口增长的好处是劳动力供应的增加，从生产者的角度来看，也是消费者的增加。英国和法国经历了大规模的人口增长，但英国的人口增长要大得多、快得多。1801年，法国可以拥有比英国更大的城镇。巴黎、马赛和里昂的人口规模均超过10万。1801-51年间，英国城市地区的人口快速增长。在1821-31年的十年里，利兹、谢菲尔德、伯明翰、曼彻斯特和利物浦的人口都增长了至少40%。这些英国城市中人口数量的增加不仅源于较高的出生率，还源于农村向城市的移民。法国经济增长水平低可归因于其人口增长缓慢和城镇增长缓慢。
Rural-urban migration is the movement of labour from rural areas into urban areas. Labour was free to move without any implications as productivity in agriculture had increased. Clapham (1968, p232) describes rural-urban migration in France during the 18th and 19th centuries as “leisurely”. In 1801, one in fifteen lived in towns in France, by the year 1851 this had only increased to one in ten. The movement of labour from rural areas to towns and cities, assisted the progress of British industry. In France a large amount of the population remained on the land. In1840, 28.6% of the male labour force was employed in agriculture in Britain (Crafts, 1983). The corresponding proportion in France was 66% (Price, 1975). By 1913, France had the largest proportion of labour employed in agriculture among the industrialised nations around 40% (Cameron and Neal, 2003).
农村-城市移徙是劳动力从农村地区向城市地区的流动。随着农业生产力的提高，劳动力可以自由流动，不会产生任何影响。Clapham将18世纪和19世纪法国的农村到城市的移民描述为“悠闲”。1801年，每15人中就有一人居住在法国的城镇，到1851年，这一比例仅增加到十分之一。劳动力从农村地区转移到城镇，有助于英国工业的发展。在法国，大量人口仍留在土地上。1840年，英国28.6%的男性劳动力受雇于农业。法国的相应比例为66%。到1913年，在工业化国家中，法国农业劳动力就业比例最高，约为40%。
In 1789, the French Revolution took place, which had a large impact on the economy. From the revolution, a stronger and efficient central government emerged, which Price (1975, p166) describes as the “professionalisation of bureaucracy”. However the revolution offered no change to the economic structure of France. Agriculture was the dominant sector prior to the revolution and after its position was strengthened, as the legal position of the peasant was strengthened. This ultimately prevented an enclosure movement on the same scale as Britain’s taking place.
1789年，法国大革命爆发，对经济产生了巨大影响。从革命中，出现了一个更强大、更有效率的中央政府，普莱斯将其描述为“官僚主义的专业化”。然而，这场革命并没有改变法国的经济结构。农业在革命前和革命后都是主导部门，因为农民的法律地位得到了加强。这最终阻止了与英国同样规模的圈地运动的发生。
From 1790-1815, France spearheaded the Napoleonic Wars, fighting against many of its neighbours including Britain. Towards the end of the wars, France itself became a battleground. The wars meant France’s economic growth suffered, with Floud and Johnson (2004, p457) referring to them as a “thirty-year hiatus in French economic growth”. The wars were not only a drain on the French labour force, which could have potentially been producing output. The Wars were also on resources such as raw materials. The wars increased the cost of transport. During the wars, roads were deteriorating as a result of more use, because of the British blockade in the surrounding waters. The Napoleonic wars had a less notable effect on Britain, partly because it left most of the fighting to its continental allies. Britain’s trade and growth expanded during the years 1790-1815. Maddison (1982) estimates that in 1820, gross domestic product per head in Britain was 50% higher than France.
从1790-1815年，法国领导了拿破仑战争，与包括英国在内的许多邻国作战。战争快结束时，法国本身就成了战场。这些战争意味着法国的经济增长受到影响，Floud和Johnson将其称为“法国经济增长的三十年中断”。战争不仅消耗了法国劳动力，而法国劳动力本来有可能产生产出。战争还涉及原材料等资源。战争增加了运输成本。战争期间，由于英国对周围水域的封锁，道路因使用增多而恶化。拿破仑战争对英国的影响不那么显著，部分原因是英国将大部分战斗留给了其大陆盟友。1790-1815年间，英国的贸易和经济增长都有所增长。Maddison估计，1820年，英国的人均国内生产总值比法国高出50%。
Both nations’ governments encouraged the growth of industry, however there was considerable difference in the size of the role played. Malthius (2001, p4) describes Britain’s industrialisation as “spontaneous” and “not being the result of conscious government policy sponsoring industrial progress”. The French government was supportive in adopting British techniques and capital to strengthen its economy after the Napoleonic Wars, such as the use of steam engine. It took a direct role in attempting to encourage the importation of foreign capital and also expertise. Both countries had established mercantilist doctrines in the 17th century. Rich et al (1977, p573) describes the mercantilist ambition as to “increase the wealth of their states at the expense of other states”. Both countries had similar protectionist policies, such as tariffs on importation, in their mercantilist doctrines. However, a key difference was that France had strict regulation on the quality of goods produced by its industry (Hansen, 2002). Britain’s mercantilist centrepiece was the Navigation Acts of 1651, with the aim of establishing a merchant fleet that could in turn be used by the navy for war.
两国政府都鼓励工业的发展，但在所起作用的规模上存在相当大的差异。Malthius将英国的工业化描述为“自发的”，“不是有意识的政府政策支持工业进步的结果”。拿破仑战争后，法国政府支持采用英国的技术和资本来加强经济，例如使用蒸汽机。它在试图鼓励进口外国资本和专门知识方面发挥了直接作用。两国都在17世纪确立了重商主义学说。Rich等人将重商主义的野心描述为“以牺牲其他州的利益为代价增加其州的财富”。本篇assignment指出这两个国家在重商主义学说中都有类似的保护主义政策，如对进口征收关税。然而，一个关键的区别是，法国对其工业生产的商品质量有严格的监管。英国重商主义的核心是1651年的《航海法》，目的是建立一支可供海军用于战争的商船队。
The shift of the economies’ labour and capital from agriculture to industry occurred much earlier in Britain compared to France. Despite this, through most of the 18th and 19th centuries, France was an industrial power second only to Britain. Britain had a natural transport advantage, due to a long narrow coastline and navigable rivers. French industrialisation was slow and characterised by a number of problems that ultimately delayed its industrialisation. Price (1975, p94) referring to Rostow’s growth theory suggests that “no single period can be described as that of “take-off” in France’s industrial development”. However Clapham (1968) argues that France experienced a “take-off” around the year 1895, when its steel production became the fastest growing in the world. It was at the same time that France’s railway network became larger than that of Britain. The introduction of railways in France, resurrected its lagging coal production and saw it expand rapidly towards the end of the 19th century. The role of both countries government during their industrial revolutions was quite different. Britain’s industrial revolution was driven mostly by entrepreneurs with some support from its government. The French government played a larger role in supporting the industrialisation of its nation, mostly through administrative action during and after the Napoleonic Wars.
本篇assignment总结到，与法国相比，英国的劳动力和资本从农业向工业的转移发生得更早。尽管如此，在18世纪和19世纪的大部分时间里，法国是仅次于英国的工业大国。由于拥有狭长的海岸线和可通航的河流，英国拥有天然的交通优势。法国的工业化进程缓慢，其特点是存在许多问题，最终推迟了工业化进程。Price引用了Rostow的增长理论，认为“在法国工业发展中，没有一个时期可以被描述为‘起飞’”。然而，Clapham认为，法国在1895年左右经历了一次“起飞”，当时法国的钢铁产量成为世界上增长最快的国家。与此同时，法国的铁路网比英国的铁路网更大。法国铁路的引入使其落后的煤炭生产得以恢复，并在19世纪末迅速扩张。两国政府在工业革命中的作用截然不同。英国的工业革命主要是由企业家推动的，并得到了政府的一些支持。法国政府在支持国家工业化方面发挥了更大的作用，主要是通过拿破仑战争期间和之后的行政行动。本站提供各国各专业assignment格式范文，assignment代写以及assignment写作辅导，如有需要可咨询本平台。
