英国留学生语言学课程作业：斯蒂芬钢坯dissertation的翻译要点分析Stephen billet paper analyzes the translation of key points
ⅠSource Text
Ⅰ源文本
1.1 Text Choice
1.1文本选择
In order to meet the need of economic development, in many advanced industrial economies, the emphasis of the programs in higher education has shifted from the liberal art towards the preparation for specific occupations. While some educators think it inconsistent with the purposes of higher education. Instead of catering to the economic interests, they argued that the purposes of higher education are to develop students’ capacity of self-study, and prepare them to become the person with insightful, reflective, and critical thoughts. Opinions on this issue vary in educational world. As an educator, Stephen Billet suggested that integrating work experiences in higher education could coordinate that controversy. In his “Realising the educational worth of integrating work experiences in higher education” published in Studies in Higher Education, he illustrated the educational worth of integrating practice-based experience in higher education, and proposed some kinds of curriculum and pedagogic practices to secure this educational worth.
为了满足经济发展的需要，在许多发达工业经济体，文科高等教育计划的重点已从对特定职业准备。一些教育工作者认为，高等教育的宗旨不符。餐饮业的经济利益，而是他们认为，高等教育的目的是培养学生的自学能力，并培养他们成为有见地，反射和关键的思想的人。在这个问题上意见不同的教育世界。作为一名教育工作者，斯蒂芬钢坯建议在高等教育工作经验，整合协调，争议。他在他的“共建高等教育”高等教育研究发表在整合工作经验的教育价值，说明整合基于实践经验，在高等教育的教育价值，并提出了某些类型的课程和教学实践，以确保这次教育值得的。
This article of Stephen Billet is beneficial for the higher education in China. Since the implementation of reform and opening-up policy, China has drawn its emphasis on economic development. There are also some arguments on educational reform. Graduates are expected to immediately and effectively adapt themselves to new professional settings, while some comprehensive universities still insist on the teaching of humanities and adaptable knowledge. Through effectively integrating work experiences in higher education, graduates might be prepared as both practical and critical employees. By translating this article from English into Chinese can benefit for educational institutions and educators in China.#p#分页标题#e#
斯蒂芬钢坯的这篇文章是有利于中国的高等教育。自实施改革开放政策以来，中国已制定了其对经济发展的重点。教育教学改革也有一些争论。毕业生预计将立即和有效地适应新的专业设置，而一些综合性的大学仍然坚持在教学中的人文和适应性强的知识。通过有效整合工作经验，在高等教育，毕业生可能准备作为兼具实用和关键员工。从英语到中文翻译这篇文章，可以受益于中国的教育机构和教育工作者。
1.2 Tex Analyses
1.2 TEX分析
Text-type and Readership
文字型及读者
The source text is an academic dissertation about integrating work experiences in higher education. According to Chinese scholar Ji Rong Qin, “学术dissertation是较为专门和系统的研究自然或社会问题的议论类文章，是对自然或社会现象进行科学研究和探索发现的书面描述”（纪蓉琴 2006）,the style of the source text is discussion. It follows the method of “question-analysis-solution”, with emphasis on academic concepts (such as “vocation”, “integrating practice-based experiences”, and “dispositional knowledge”), supporting theories, logical argument and connectives.
源文本整合工作经验，在高等教育的学术dissertation。据中国学者秦吉融， 2006年），源文本风格的讨论。它遵循“问题分析解决方案”的方法，强调学术概念（如“天职” ， “整合基于实践经验” ， “倾向性知识” ） ，支持理论，逻辑论证和连接词。读者的源文本是教育工作者在高等教育，高等教育研究学者和管理人员的高等教育机构，其母语或第二语言是英语。译者的判断的主要依据是教育的概念经常使用的文字，如“高等教育” ， “大学” ， “职业教育” ， “课程与教学活动” 。预期的目标读者是在高等教育，高等教育研究学者和管理人员的高等教育机构，其母语或第二语言是中国的教育。这些读者通常有较高的教育背景和学术素养。在高等教育和学术dissertation的特点，他们可以理解的基本概念。
The intended readers of the source text are educators in higher education, scholars on the study of higher education, and managers of the higher educational institutions, whose mother tongue or second language is English. The main bases of the translator’s judgement are the concepts on education frequently used in the text, such as “higher education”, “universities”, “occupational education”, “curriculum and pedagogic activities”. The intended target readers are educators in higher education, scholars on the study of higher education, and managers of the higher educational institutions, whose mother tongue or second language is Chines. Those readers usually have a higher educational background and academic literacy. They can understand the basic concepts in higher education and the features of the academic dissertation.#p#分页标题#e#
寄存器是根据韩礼德和R.哈桑， “这是典型的相关情境的功能配置 - 具有特定值的领域，模式和男高音......” （ Net.1 ）的语言特点。字段是“总的事件，包括在其中的文本的功能，连同目的的活动者或作者的主题事项作为元素” （ Net.1 ）之一。模式为“事件中的文本的功能，包括通道所采取语言 - 口头或书面，即席或准备 - 其体裁，修辞模式，为叙事，说教式的，有说服力的......” （ Net.1 ） 。男高音是指“之类的角色互动，对相关社会关系的集合，永久和临时的，其中的参与者” （ Net.1 ） 。基于这三个值中的寄存器字段，模式和男高音的定义，可以分析源文本如下：
Register
According to M.A.K Halliday and R. Hasan, register is “the linguistic features which are typically associated with a configuration of situational features - with particular values of the field, mode and tenor…” (Net.1). Field is “the total event, in which the text is functioning, together with the purposive activity of the speaker or writer; includes subject-matter as one of the elements” (Net.1). Mode is “the function of the text in the event, including both the channel taken by language - spoken or written, extempore or prepared, - and its genre, rhetorical mode, as narrative, didactic, persuasive…” (Net.1). The Tenor refers to “the type of role interaction, the set of relevant social relations, permanent and temporary, among the participants involved” (Net.1). Based on the definitions of the three values of register- field, mode and tenor, the source text can be analysis as follows:
Field: In the source text, the author illustrates the educational worth of integrating work experiences in higher education and puts forward the specific measures and advices; It is an argumentative article whose function is to convince the reader, mainly expressed in lexis and semantic field, such as the repetition of “higher education”, “integrating work experiences”, “vocation”, “occupation”, “work”, “curriculum”, and so on.#p#
Mode: The source text is an academic paper published in an authoritative magazine. Its medium of transmission is in the written form. It’s formal, objective, and specialized, which is mainly shown in the syntactic features: extensive use of compound sentences, inanimate words as the subject (e.g. “vocations”, “these curriculum and pedagogic activities”), passive voice (e.g. “It is proposed that……”, “Offered here is……”), and so on. Published on the specialized academic magazine, this article limits its reader to the professional; consequently, it cannot get timely feedback.
Tenor: The author of the source text is an educator of Griffith University of Australia. The majority of the target readers, as well as the source readers, are educators in higher education, scholars on the study of higher education, and managers of the higher educational institutions, who are familiar with this subject field. They are expected to be influenced by or even adopt the advices discussed in the dissertation.
Cohesion
Baker (1992) mentions that: “cohesion is the network of surface relations which link words and expressions to other words and expressions in a text…” (P. 218). In this case, on the level of discourse, the prominent feature of the cohesion is to extensive use of the references and conjunctions, such as “it”, “these”, “those”, and “yet”, “however”, “therefore”, “nevertheless”, etc.
ⅡTranslation Issues and Strategies
2.1 Translation Issues
According to the definition of technical translation by Wright & Wright, Jr. on Scientific and Technical Translation, “Technical translation… encompasses the translation of special language texts i.e., texts written using Languages for Special Purposes (LSP). As such, technical translation (and “technical terminology” as well) includes not only the translation of texts in engineering or medicine, but also such disciplines as economic, psychology and law” (1993:1). It suggests that this academic dissertation on the educational worth of integrating work experiences in higher education belongs to the technical paper. It has the features of the technical language: large amount of terminologies, high frequency of passive forms, nominalisation, and complex long sentences. Because of the culture gap and the different kinds of language code between English and Chinese, many translation issues arise during the translation exercise. The major translation issues are divided into three levels: lexical, syntactic and textual. #p#分页标题#e#
Lexical Level
w Terminology
According to Newmark, terminology takes up about 5-10% of a technical text (1988: 151). The amount of technical terms in the current ST is almost 5%. As research in childhood stuttering in Hong Kong and the mainland of China is limited, there are very few up to date Chinese parallel texts available as reference material. In addition, a lot of the widely recognised English terminologies do not have an equivalent Chinese translation.
w Superordinates and Hyponyms
Another issue is the non-equivalent use of superordinates and hyponyms. This occurs when the ST uses more generic terms and the TT uses more specific terms to refer to the same concept. Annotations 4 and 14 explain how the literal translation of the word ‘child/children’ is too general for the TT.
w Nominalisation
Nominalisation is a common translation issue when translating an English ST into Chinese. ‘在普通英語中用動詞表達的內容, 科技英語中常用名詞表達…這種名詞化結構簡潔、結構緊湊… 省卻過多的主謂結構’ (Wang 1989: 39). Annotations 13 and 27 illustrate this translation issue.
Syntactic Level
w Voice
Wang believes that there are three reasons for the frequent use of the passive voice in English technical texts. Firstly, sometimes, in technical research, the result is more important than who carries out the action, ‘科技作者探討事物的發展過程和闡述科學原理時, 往往着眼於演繹論證的結果, 而不大考慮動作的實行者.’ (1989: 32-33). Secondly, the passive voice gives a sense of objectiveness and thirdly, the passive voice can help to make the sentence more succinct (1989: 33). However, the passive voice is rarely used in Chinese. Thus, it is sometimes necessary to convert the passive voice in the ST into the active voice in the TT. Annotations 5, 6 and 8 are examples of translation issues involving the use of the passive voice. #p#分页标题#e#
w Adverbial Clause
This is another example of non-equivalent syntactical features between the ST and the TT. Adverbial clauses are used very frequently in the ST as they are an efficient way of organising information and expressing logic (Liu 1997: 347). Annotation 18 is an example of a translation issue which involves adverbial clause in the ST.
w Compound Sentence
English technical texts tend to use a lot of compound sentences. Annotations 28 and 30 illustrate this issue. When translating compound sentences into Chinese, literal translation does not work. This is because Chinese technical texts tend to express ideas in a linear way with shorter clauses or sentences.
Textual Level
w Formality
‘The formality of a text is a measure of the attention the writer gives to the structuring of the message. Greater attention leads to more care in writing and this marks the text as possessing a higher degree of formality and signals a more distant relationship … between writer and reader.’ (Bell 1991: 186) There is non-equivalence between the address system in the ST and the one in the TT. In Chinese academic texts, the author avoids reference to himself as ‘I’ or ‘my’, ‘筆者’ or ‘筆者的’ is used instead. In the ST, the author uses ‘I’ or ‘my’ throughout the whole text. Adjustments therefore have to be made in the TT so that the level of formality meets the target reader’s expectation.
w Coherence
Coherence transcends lexical and syntactic levels. It is about ‘a network of relations which organize and create a text’ (Baker 1992: 218). In the ST, pronouns are often used to prevent the text from becoming too wordy. Also, SL readers can infer the network of relations. However, in the TT, coherence will be lost if too many pronouns are used. TL readers expect to know what specific items the author is referring to. Annotation 12 illustrates how the translation of pronouns from the ST to the TT becomes an issue. Coherence is also about how the information is presented in such a way that is logical to the target readers. English technical texts use a large number of compound sentences. Readers are expected to infer the underlying logical relations and coherence between the translation units. However, Chinese technical texts tend to use much shorter sentences to deliberate logic. As a result of this non-equivalence, when translating compound sentences from E to C, connectives, punctuation and extra words have to be added to the TT so that the coherence of the text is assured (see Annotations 17 and 21).
w Culture Specific Examples
Gerzymisch-Arbogast notes the issue of quoting examples in technical translation, ‘the translation of examples is often complicated by the fact that they are culture specific. They can only fulfil their function of providing the reader with “given” information, i.e., illustrative purposes, if the reader can relate to the quoted example.’ (Wright & Wright, Jr. 1993: 39). In the ST, the author quotes a number of examples of speech disfluencies (ST: L159). The problem is that the examples are based on English phrases. These examples are much less relevant to Chinese clinicians or researchers. Therefore, it is necessary to add a translator’s note to clarify the fact that the examples quoted are only for English target readers.
