论述西方政治、社会制度变革面临的制约因素

A Western political and social system, the basic framework

一、 西方政治和社会制度的基本框架

Western countries, the development of political and social system has gone through a long historical period, during which surrounds qualifications (such as property, education, race, gender, etc.) and power were a number of games. England after several electoral reform, and eventually abolished the restrictions on the right to vote, in the social organization evolving conditions, form a "universal suffrage" as the characteristics of the political system, and in the latter half of the 20th century, through the freedom of capital norms and social intervention, formed the boundaries of the modern nation-state social welfare state. Other Western countries more or less follow this system, the formation of Western political and social system, the basic framework. This framework of the Constitution as the principal legal systems have been implemented, the basic contents include: political competition and political power for the goal of the votes of social and political mobilization, political organizations on the implementation of legislative, administrative and judicial separation of powers and a relatively "neutral" career civil service system.

西方国家政治和社会制度的发展经历了一段漫长的历史时期，期间围绕着资格（如财产、教育程度、种族、性别等）和权力进行过多次博弈。英国经过多次选举法改革，才逐渐取消了对选举权的限制，在社会组织不断发展的条件下，形成以“普选权”为特征的政治制度，并在20世纪后半叶通过对自由资本的规范和对社会的干预，形成了以民族国家为边界的现代社会福利国家制度。西方其他发达国家或多或少地效仿了这种制度，形成西方政治社会制度的基本框架。

1 through ballot political competition and political power to achieve political parties. Europe is the birthplace of party politics. From the 17th century the British Parliament problems surrounding the succession to the throne factions, to the development of today's active in national and EU political arena party, party politics everywhere. Political parties to organize and mobilize the community to the main political forces and political organization. Political parties to compete for the main means to seize power for the main purpose of most Western countries have established a bipartisan or multi-party system, the ruling party in turn, so that the different social interests and aspirations were expressed in the competition, and to maintain political The relative stability and to prevent the ruling party of corruption and increase the legitimacy of the political system. The winning party in the election can not only carry out their ruling position through policy advocacy and legislative dominance can be obtained, thus affecting the direction of national development. Therefore, the parties will focus its work on the general election activities. To win the election victory, the political parties are all out to elect candidates to develop their campaign platforms, to raise campaign funds, trying to campaign to win voter support. Voters also passed the selection for the ruling party to express their wishes. However, due to the political need to mobilize votes for a lot of money to win votes, so it's actually been out of the will of the people and become a tool of capital and interest groups.

1.通过选票政治实现政党竞争和政权轮替。欧洲是政党政治的发源地。从17世纪英国议会中围绕王位继承问题出现的派别，发展到当今活跃在各国和欧盟政治舞台上的政党，政党政治无处不在。政党是组织和动员社会的主要政治力量和政治组织形式。政党政治以竞争为主要手段，以掌握政权为主要目的，在多数西方国家建立了两党或多党轮流执政的政党体制，使不同的社会利益和诉求在竞争中得到表达，并借此保持政局的相对稳定，防止执政党腐败，并提高政治制度的合法性。在竞选中获胜的政党不仅可以通过执政地位贯彻自己的政策主张，而且可以获得立法的优势地位，从而影响国家发展方向。因此，政党一般将其工作重点放在选举活动上。

(2) separation of powers and political organization. Modern Western parliamentary system is the core of the legislative, executive and judicial powers independent of each other, mutual checks and balances, its fundamental purpose is to make the political power could be effectively controlled. But in today's Western society, "separation of powers" has not accurately reflect the social and political reality, the media independent status and extensive influence has earned it the "fourth power" in the title. Meanwhile, all the powers of institutions, the role of Parliament is also relatively prominent. Parliament also known as the Congress, is the modern representative institutions in Western countries. It consists of representatives of the people elected by universal suffrage composition to "express the will of all the people," and who generally enjoy legislative power, budgetary power and administrative supervision, so position is very prominent. To the "parliamentary" State Britain, for example, the British Parliament is the highest legislative body, the Parliament enacts, amend, supplement or repeal laws; Parliament is the chief source of power, once the Parliament passed the no-confidence motion against the Cabinet, the Cabinet must resign; Parliament also responsible for the consideration and approval of the government's budget and financial accounts.

 

3. Politically relatively "neutral" civilian career. Civil service is a professional civil servants, and obtained through the change of the ruling party with the appointment of the "government officials" are different. The system as the East India Company introduced from China to transform, in order to prevent the "spoils system" of the state. Its basic features include: public examinations and merit-based hiring, strict examination and reward, no-fault lifetime tenure, in terms of party politics remain "neutral" and so on. Career civil servants in Western countries an important part of the power structure of the normal functioning of the state apparatus plays an essential role. Belgium from June 13 last year, unable to generate an absolute majority of parliamentary elections after the anarchy lasting more than one year, set a Guinness world record. Although there is no government, but the Belgian political situation remains stable, the work is still in an orderly manner, the fundamental reason lies in the support of the civil service system.#p#分页标题#e#

 

Second, the political, economic and social interaction

 

Western countries after World War II system is a sovereign state within the boundaries of a set of political, economic and social forces and promote each other, mutual restraint system. Karl Polanyi in the "Great Transformation" (1944), a book that is the key to sustainable economic development in the economic and social and political forces to maintain inter-relate and organic coordination, and from the social constraints of the capitalist market economy ultimately difficult escape the crisis doom.

 

Polanyi's contribution is pointed out that in a market economy expanding at the same time, society will rise up to protect themselves against a variety of market forces constantly to resist the expansion of market principles and limitations. Social protection campaign aims to re-implement the social control of the market, or to limit the role of the market within the limits of society to control and avoid vicious market expansion lead to human society towards self-destruction. More developed markets, the more society is trying to protect themselves. Once the social protection instinct started, the market and society will increase the tension between social protection to play games directly impact the effectiveness of the market system, and ultimately destroy the so-called self-regulating market. Self-regulating market expansion and social self-protection mechanisms of coexistence and contradictory movement constitutes a particular concern Polanyi Society "two-way movement."

 

In Polanyi's view, the market economy is not naturally occurring, is the country where the market segmented into a unified domestic market. Meanwhile, the state also receive resources from market liberalization direction and strength, accompanied by the market and grow together, is the business revolution triggered by the new creation. Market is necessary, but the market must be embedded in societies, and maintain social harmony and development, and in a market economy countries should play an active and important role. Market development, promotion and regulation need help from the state. Damaged self-regulation of the market has led to political interference. When the trade cycle can not be achieved, employment can not be restored ...... governments must respond to this tension. State where acts of interference pattern depends on the political field and the extent of the economic downturn. Similarly, market-oriented development to solve the problems caused by the role also requires countries. The relationship between the market and society is a tension between the state and society in the market "two-way movement" played an important role. Countries, through the introduction of new laws, regulations and systems to limit the expansion of the market and social opposition forces, in order to ensure normal social order. In short, the real market needs of the community in the management of state to play an active role in the market. Therefore, the state, the market and society relationship between the three are mutually conditioned.#p#分页标题#e#

 

Third, the impact of economic globalization

 

Polanyi observed for Western society is full of profound insight. Place in the world today, everything seems to suggest that Polanyi described the "19th-century social and political history appears to repeat itself again, differing only in today's stage has been greatly expanded." Polanyi's analysis reflects the boundaries of sovereign states based on ethnic characteristics of the times, and the self-regulating market mechanism has been across borders, the economic globalization movement is at an alarming rate worldwide rapid expansion. Development of economic globalization, changing people's traditional economic life of the countries of the world into a single market and a unified code of conduct under the economic system. Economic activities within the expanded boundaries, but social and political activities are still confined within the boundaries of the nation-state, market wanton behavior can not constrain. Western society took centuries before the formation of the three mutual restraint system so there imbalances and asymmetries state. Specifically, the impact of economic globalization embodied in the following aspects:

 

1 with large multinational companies as the main interest groups. From the 1990s onwards, the rapid development of multinational actors in the world economy in a force to be reckoned with, private capital is not only wealthy, but also the right to be an enemy. Economies of scale multinational company, number of employees, management and other aspects of regional development strategies rapid development, making it the international division of labor and international trade, the main organizers and stakeholders. In the economic and political fields, multinational companies are increasingly replacing the traditional nation-state exercise various powers. Multinational companies moving away from country to become an important actor in the international arena who they want to represent them in international interests, but through the transfer abroad of capital to get rid of the redistribution of domestic obligations. In order to safeguard interests of the company, they are often directly or through a variety of means or indirectly, on the nation-state pressure the government to influence government decisions. As a typical representative of interest groups, multinational corporations and political decision-making process on the extensive involvement has become a modern democratic system in important benefits coordinator and social mobilizer. EU interest groups lobbying objects include not only national and supranational parliament two levels, including expert group also includes the European Commission or the Council of Ministers. U.S. interest groups to influence government decision-making, often using internal lobbying to influence the election, external lobbying, litigation, such as several key strategies for parliamentary, administrative and court influence, participate in the U.S. legislative process, executive decision-making and justice.#p#分页标题#e#

 

(2) balance of power led to growing inequality between rich and poor. Strong and globalization of capital and the weak and the nationalization of the asymmetric relationship between social forces led to the field of power distribution tilted sharply to the capital, and further lead to global wealth disparity within the Western developed countries have not been spared. According to statistics, 10% of the UK's most affluent population, the per capita value of the assets of £ 853,000, the poorest 10% of the population, per capita assets of only £ 8,800, a difference of almost 100 times. U.S. 0.1% paid family occupied the country for over 10% of total personal income, their average annual income of more than $ 1.7 million. In contrast, the income of junior officers for decades have declined, resulting in the most severe since the Great Depression United States income disparities. In 2008-2009, the French standard of living of the poorest households continued to decline; the same period, the income of the richest families has continued to rise. Declining living standards, while the underlying poverty also increased, a total increase of 33.7 million people, reaching 8,170,000. Living below the poverty line increased by 0.5% in France. Labour and Immigration market mechanism will bring out the land for generations to survive, to chase jobs and prosperity, thus aggravating the Western developed countries, economic, political and social imbalances, accumulated growing social discontent, strikes, protests quickly swept through Europe and the United States. British newspaper "Independent" commented that these protests herald revolutionary fanaticism since 1968 the largest since the beginning of the struggle against the public. "Occupy Wall Street" movement has spread to U.S. cities. This protest by the "Arab Spring" protest movement inspired by the aim of economic inequality and 1 percent against the privileged class. Its slogan "We are the 99%" is now such action groups around the world have adopted and spread further to the global trend.

 

3 political system an unprecedented burden. Global market and the imbalance of power between nation-states caused by various problems in many Western countries has become more and more prominent, an unprecedented burden of the political system, economic, social and political constraints of mutual promotion and mutual offset into the pattern and limitations pattern.

 

First, the European welfare state obtained by affecting the economic welfare of political capital outflows and because global competition and unsustainable. Western developed countries on the one hand through deficit spending, deficits run up debt Taiwan to maintain the welfare of finance, the other is to carry out drastic reforms, inhibit excessive labor costs and make their products to restore international competitiveness. Such is the state got hit, triggering a massive social discontent and protest, thus exacerbating the fragility of the political system.#p#分页标题#e#

Second, reflecting the mood of the media community to join the ranks of the critics of the government, and through optimized media and channels, so that criticism of the government can quickly spread to redouble amplification, and sometimes have a "butterfly effect." In Germany, the media's interpretation Merkel government policies greatly weakened her ability to govern, she led the party has lost in six local elections, the CDU and CSU voters currently support rate dropped to 32%. British media also criticized the government continued, that the coalition government is facing internal problems outside the storm: a weak economy, health care system and the rapid changes in the criminal justice system reform, the war in Libya, the situation makes it very difficult for the coalition government. A survey shows that British people on the opposition Labor Party's support rate was 41%, the ruling Conservative Party's support rate was 35%, the ruling coalition of the Liberal Democratic Party's support rate was 13%. In other EU countries also breeds a variety of internal discontent, including the excessive use of military force against NATO. It can be said, since the emergence of multiple social imbalances, multiple discontent within Western societies are generated and spread.

 

Third, the rise of extreme right-wing nationalism, percentage of votes in the election rising. When the state of the political forces in the global market is difficult to deal with, one option is to re-solidify the boundaries of the nation-state, harping on the old tune narrow nationalism, and thus curb the influx of immigrants, inciting nationalist sentiment, the implementation of protectionist policies and so on. There are some extremist forces to take a more radical means to express their dissatisfaction. Riots to Norway from London bombing attacks, these indicate that the entire Western prominent social conflicts, public discontent has grown to more serious level.

 

Fourth, the response of European integration

 

To meet the development of economic globalization, many countries have set up or development of regional economic blocs, take the road of regional integration. In a certain sense, the European Union hopes to form a new integration of the protection of borders, on the one hand through the EU to establish a large market, so that access to capital and market forces greater than the nation's freedom of movement; External protection measures on the other hand, internal urged to improve competitiveness within the EU market, social and economic forces to re-achieve some degree of balance. EU's organizational structure precisely reflects the economic, political and social forces unbalanced state. Concretely embodied in various different fields capabilities.

 

A European economic integration. European integration is started from the economic field, through integration, customs union and common market established, enlarged European countries economic boundaries. In particular tariff unification, differs significantly from the outside world, "European Economy" area begins to form. Meanwhile, in agriculture, competition policy, foreign trade and other fields to establish a common policy for the circulation of commodities between countries to provide protection. Secondly, the Common Market of the building. "Single European Act" within the new boundaries in the Community to establish a unified big market, promote goods, services, capital and people flow. Finally, the establishment of economic and monetary union. Of the euro means the currency level integration finally realized. In addition, the EU has also established a European Central Bank and the central bank system, and established four criteria to regulate the rate of inflation, budget deficits, exchange rates and long-term interest rates. Deepening European economic integration, to enable Member States to a certain extent and scope of the EU a gradual transfer and sharing of sovereignty rights, fundamental economic forces completed a breakthrough of traditional national boundaries, making the EU economic factors over a large range of reconfiguration, thereby creating new wealth. The economic law expanding the EU internal logic. #p#分页标题#e#

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2. European political integration. As a landmark treaty, "Treaty of Rome" in the completion of European integration, political objectives, content, organization and functions of the original design. From the "Treaty of Rome" to "Lisbon Treaty", European political integration in the steadily advancing. In a sense, the European integration is the process of creating a polity. However, the regime has created much like the common market building as smoothly. Nation-state as the ultimate power of decision-makers has been a major influence the assignment of powers to the EU. In this case, the EU has taken various forms of compromise, the establishment of the various capabilities of different political institutions to cope with different degree of integration of the various functional areas, such as in the field of foreign trade and economic supranational authority with the European Commission, European Court of Justice, in a variety of decision-making in the implementation of a veto of the member governments and the Council of Ministers, the nominal growth of the power of growth exceeds the actual powers of the European Parliament and to retain a variety of power governments, and are playing a role of secondary national institutions, the private sector, non-governmental organizations. Compared with the economic power, the EU's political structure becomes fragmented and cluttered, often difficult to generate the formation of economic forces promote or restrict the role of the force.