留学生社会学专业dissertation需求：The Role of Optimism i
The Role of Optimism in Social Network Development, Coping, and Psychological Adjustment During a Life Transition
Ian Brissette
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
Michael F. Scheier
Carnegie Mellon University
Charles S. Carver
University of Miami
留学生dissertationThe authors investigated the extent to which social support and coping account for the associationbetween greater optimism and better adjustment to stressful life events. College students of both genderscompleted measures of perceived stress, depression, friendship network size, and perceived socialsupport at the beginning and end of their 1st semester of college. Coping was assessed at the end of the1st semester. Greater optimism, assessed at the beginning of the 1st semester of college, was prospectivelyassociated with smaller increases in stress and depression and greater increases in perceived socialsupport (but not in friendship network size) over the course of the 1st semester of college. Mediational
analyses were consistent with a model in which increases in social support and greater use of positivereinterpretation and growth contributed to the superior adjustment that optimists experienced.differences in optimism play an important role in the
adjustment to stressful life events (reviewed in Scheier, Carver, &Bridges, 2001). Greater optimism has been found to be associatedwith less mood disturbance in response to a variety of stressors,including adjustment to law school (Segerstrom, Taylor, Kemeny,& Fahey, 1998), breast cancer and coronary bypass surgery (Carveret al., 1993; Scheier et al., 1989), and exposure to SCUD
missile attacks (Zeidner & Hammer, 1992).One explanation for the associations that have been found is that
optimists cope more effectively with their stressors than do pessimists.There is substantial evidence that optimists use differentstrategies tocope than do pessimists and that these coping differencescontribute to the positive association between optimism and
better adjustment (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989; Scheier,Weintraub, & Carver, 1986; Stanton & Snider, 1993; for a review,see Scheier et al., 2001, or Carver & Scheier, 1999). Studies alsoindicate, however, that differences in coping can account for onlypart of the association between optimism and better adjustment
(e.g., Aspinwall & Taylor, 1992; Carver et al., 1993; Scheier et al.,
1989; Segerstrom et al., 1998). This raises questions about otherpsychological and behavioral pathways that may underlie the
relationships that have been observed. In the present study, weevaluate the possibility that optimists adjust to stressful life circumstances
more successfully because they also possess moreextensive and supportive social networks than do pessimists.
The idea that social networks play an important role in mentalhealth maintenance is well established (Cobb, 1976; Cohen &#p#分页标题#e#
Syme, 1985; House, 1981). There is considerable evidence thatboth qualitative aspects of social networks, such as the extent to
which they can be relied on to provide social support, and structuralaspects of social networks, such as their size, can influence
psychological well-being (Cohen & Wills, 1985; Lin, Dean, &Ensel, 1986). Qualitative dimensions of social networks generally
influence psychological well-being by operating as a stress buffer(Cohen & Wills, 1985). Individuals who report that members of
their social networks would provide them with emotional, instrumental,and informational resources if and when needed display
lower levels of distress and depressive symptoms in response tostressful life events than those who do not (Cohen & Wills, 1985;Lin et al., 1986; Thoits, 1995). On the other hand, structuralfeatures of people’s social networks, such as their size, generallyexert a main effect on psychological well-being. Individuals whopossess a greater number of relationships with friends, family
members, coworkers, and neighbors report less distress and greaterpositive affect, regardless of their levels of stress, than those whopossess fewer of these relationships (Cohen & Wills, 1985).Given the evidence regarding the benefits of possessing extensiveand supportive social networks, one would anticipate thathaving personal http://www.ukthesis.org/dissertation_writing/sociology/attributes that foster the development of thesenetwork features would in turn promote psychological well-being.Several studies indicate that attributes such as physical attractive-
Ian Brissette, Institute for Health, Health Care Policy and Aging, Rutgers,The State University of New Jersey; Michael F. Scheier, Department
of Psychology, Carnegie Mellon University; Charles S. Carver, Departmentof Psychology, University of Miami.
Ian Brissette’s participation was supported by predoctoral National
Research Service Award MH12628-01. Michael F. Scheier and Charles S.
Carver’s participation was supported by National Heart, Lung, and BloodInstitute Grants P50HL65111 and P50HL65112 and National Cancer Institute
Grants P50CA84944-01, R01 CA64710, R01 CA64711, and R01
CA78995.Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Ian
Brissette, Institute for Health, Health Care Policy and Aging, Rutgers, TheState University of New Jersey, 30 College Avenue, New Brunswick, NewJersey 08901. E-mail: [email protected] of Personality and Social Psychology Copyright 2002 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.2002, Vol. 82, No. 1, 102–111 0022-3514/02/$5.00 DOI: 10.1037//0022-3514.82.1.102
102ness (Sarason, Sarason, Hacker, & Basham, 1985) and social skillssuch as the ability to self-disclose (Cohen, Sherrod, & Clark, 1986)
and social competence (Lakey, 1989) are instrumental in developingsocial support and promoting psychological adjustment (Cohenet al., 1986; Lakey, 1989). Because an optimistic outlook wouldseem to be attractive to potential relationship partners and useful#p#分页标题#e#
for initiating social ties, we reasoned that greater optimism mightalso be instrumental in the development of extensive and supportive
social networks.Accumulating evidence from a wide variety of sources is consistent
with this proposal. As compared with pessimists, optimistsare liked more (Carver, Kus, & Scheier, 1994), report longerfriendships (Geers, Reilly, & Dember, 1998), have fewer negativesocial interactions (Lepore & Ituarte, 1999; Ra¨ikko¨nen, Matthews,
Flory, Owens, & Gump, 1999), possess greater levels of socialsupport (Park & Folkman, 1997), and report greater increases in
留学生dissertation网social support during stress (Dougall, Hyman, Hayward, Mc-
Feeley, & Baum, 2001). Also consistent with this proposal are
recent data indicating that people anticipate social interactions
with individuals who display more positive emotions to be more
rewarding (Harker & Keltner, 2001). Finally, there is evidence that
differences in social networks may account for why optimists
adjust better to stressful life events than do pessimists. For example,
Dougall et al. (2001) found that the perceived availability of
emotional support partially mediated relations between greater
optimism and improved psychological adjustment in a sample of
rescue and recovery workers who observed the crash site of a
commercial airplane.
The studies reviewed suggest that optimists’ ability to attract
greater social support may account for their superior adjustment to
stressful life events. However, these studies also raise questions
about the relations among optimism, social networks, and adjustment.
One question is whether greater optimism is associated with
the development of more supportive social networks or whether an
optimistic disposition results from being in a supportive social
network. Because the findings just reviewed either were based on
cross-sectional analyses (Aspinwall & Taylor, 1992; Park & Folkman,
1997) or examined changes in perceived support from social
network ties that were already established (Dougall et al., 2001),
they do not address whether optimism is instrumental in developing
new social networks and social support.
A second question is whether the relations between greater
optimism and greater perceived social support result from actual
structural differences in social networks, such as their size. Past
studies indicate that greater optimism is associated with both
greater perceived support at a given time (Park & Folkman, 1997)
and greater increases in perceived support during times of stress
(Dougall et al., 2001). However, because these studies have not
included measures of social network size, it is unclear whether
these differences in perceived social support reflect actual differences#p#分页标题#e#
and changes in social networks.
A third question is whether differences in structural features of
social networks, such as network size, play a role in linking greater
optimism to better adjustment. Dougall et al.’s (2001) findings
suggest that differences in perceived support are responsible for
the association between greater optimism and better adjustment.
However, because Dougall et al. did not assess social network size,
it is unclear whether differences in network size contributed to this
association.
To assess whether optimism is associated with the development
of new social networks and social support and to assess the
relations between social network development and perceived social
support, it is desirable to study individuals who are making a
transition into new social networks. For this study, we examined
young adults entering their first semester of college. Because
1st-year college students do not typically possess established social
networks on campus when they arrive, they were appropriate
for studying the development of social networks and social support.
Moreover, because the first semester of college is typically
stressful (e.g., Feldman & Newcomb, 1994), studying firstsemester
college students enabled us to assess whether differences
in the development of social networks and social support might
account for why greater optimism is associated with better adjustment
to stressful life events.
We hypothesized that greater optimism would be prospectively
associated with better psychological adjustment and the development
of more extensive and more supportive social networks
during the first semester of college. In addition, we anticipated that
the association between greater optimism and better adjustment
would be mediated by differences in social network characteristics.
We did not make any differential predictions regarding the effects
of network size versus network support. This was the case because
network size and network support are presumed to have differential
effects on well-being only in situations that are low in stress
and we assumed that the first semester of college would be
stressful for most participants in the study.
Although we presented social networks as operating independently
of individuals’ coping efforts, it is conceivable that there are
links between individuals’ social networks and the coping strategies
they use (Parkes, 1986; Thoits, 1986). For example, a more
supportive social network would seem to better afford the use of
certain coping strategies, such as the seeking of emotional or
informational support, than a less supportive social network. Alternatively,
the strategies individuals use to cope with life stressors
could influence the amount of support available from their social#p#分页标题#e#
networks. For example, those who seek out social support as a
means of coping may induce support from others, whereas those
who make use of strategies such as avoidance and the venting of
emotions may discourage others from providing support (Bolger,
Foster, Vinokur, & Ng, 1996).
These considerations raise questions regarding the relations
among optimism, coping, social networks, and psychological adjustment.
One possibility is that social support and coping are
independent paths linking optimism to adjustment. However, a
second possibility is that there are links between people’s social
networks and the coping strategies they use. In this study, we
examined the extent to which social support and coping represent
independent pathways linking greater optimism to superior adjustment
to the first semester of college.
In sum, the study had three purposes. The first was to test the
hypothesis that greater optimism is associated with the development
of more extensive and supportive friendship networks during
the first semester of college. A second, related purpose was to
examine whether optimists display better psychological adjustment
to the first semester of college than do pessimists and to
assess the extent to which these differences in adjustment are
mediated by differences in the quality and quantity of their social
network ties. Finally, a third purpose was to examine the extent to
OPTIMISM, SOCIAL SUPPORT, AND ADJUSTMENT 103
which coping and social support represent independent pathways
through which optimism is linked to better psychological adjustment
during a stressful life event.
Method
Procedure
Before the start of a fall semester, 1st-year college students who were
enrolled at a residential college were recruited to participate in a longitudinal
study on adjustment to college. Students were informed they would
complete a battery of questionnaires at the beginning of the semester and
then again at the semester’s end and that their participation was voluntary.
The initial battery of questionnaires was administered to groups of students
during the first 3 weeks of the fall semester. Follow-up questionnaires were
administered during the last week of November or the first 2 weeks of
December of that same semester (approximately 12 to 16 weeks after the
initial assessment). A total of 89 students (46 women and 43 men) completed
both the baseline and follow-up questionnaires. Ten additional
participants completed only the baseline questionnaires. The average age of
the sample of 89 students who completed the study was 17.9 years
(range 17–20). This sample did not differ from the sample that completed
only the baseline questionnaires on any variables reported in this
article.
Measures#p#分页标题#e#
All measures were administered twice (except optimism, self-esteem,
and coping), once at baseline (Time 1 [T1]) and once again during the
follow-up (T2). Optimism and self-esteem were assessed at T1, and coping
was assessed at follow-up (T2).
Optimism. Optimism was assessed using the Life Orientation Test
(LOT; Scheier & Carver, 1985). The LOT is an eight-item self-report
measure (along with four filler items) assessing generalized expectancies
for positive versus negative outcomes. Four of the eight scored items are
worded in a positive direction (e.g., “In uncertain times, I usually expect
the best”), and four items are worded in a negative direction (e.g., “I hardly
ever expect things to go my way”). Participants were asked to rate the
extent to which they agreed with each statement on a 5-point scale ranging
from 0 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). After reversing the scoring
for the negatively worded items, item scores were totaled to yield an
overall optimism score with higher scores representing higher optimism. In
this sample, scores ranged from 4 to 32. Cronbach’s alpha was .78.
Self-esteem. In recent years, there has been increased effort to discriminate
optimism from related constructs that might account for its associations
with relevant outcomes (e.g., Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994;
Smith, Pope, Rhodewalt, & Poulton, 1989). Self-esteem shares some
conceptual similarities to optimism. Like optimism, self-esteem implies an
expectation for positive outcomes. Self-esteem represents a sense of selfworth
and carries the implication that one will be accepted, as opposed to
rejected by others. Therefore, self-esteem may also influence the development
of social networks and social support and adjustment to college. What
appears to differentiate self-esteem from optimism is that whereas selfesteem
implicates the self as being responsible for positive outcomes,
optimism does not.
We assessed self-esteem in an effort to demonstrate that the expected
associations among optimism, social network development, and adjustment
during the first semester of college were independent of differences in
self-esteem. Rosenberg’s (1965) 10-item Self-Esteem Scale was used to
assess self-esteem. This scale consists of 5 positively worded items (e.g., “I
feel I have a number of good qualities”) and 5 negatively worded items
(e.g., “At times, I think I am no good at all”). Participants indicated their
agreement with these items on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). This scale has displayed good validity and
reliability (Crandall, 1973; Rosenberg, 1965). In our sample, Cronbach’s
alpha was .87.
Coping. Coping was assessed using a modified version of the Cope#p#分页标题#e#
(Carver et al., 1989). The Cope is a 60-item multidimensional coping
instrument designed to assess 15 conceptually distinct methods of coping:
active coping, positive reinterpretation and growth, seeking emotional
support, seeking instrumental support, denial, acceptance, behavioral disengagement,
alcohol and drug use, focus on venting emotions, humor,
mental disengagement, planning, turning to religion, restraint coping, and
suppression of competing activities. The version of the Cope used in the
present study consisted of 45 items (3 items for each of the 15 coping
dimensions), selected because they loaded most highly on the factors
identified in a previous factor analysis of the Cope (Carver et al., 1989).
Coping was assessed with respect to the strategies that participants used to
help them adjust to their new school environment. Specifically, participants
were instructed to rate how often they engaged in the strategy described by
each item when they encountered difficulties during the past semester on a
4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (I usually don’t do this at all) to 4
(I usually do this a lot). Cronbach’s alpha for the 15 scales ranged from .21
(mental disengagement) to .93 (seeking emotional support). With the
exception of mental disengagement, the remainder of the alphas were
above .60, with the majority (12) over .70. The average alpha across the 15
scales was .74.
Perceived social support. The perceived availability of social support
was assessed using the Belonging, Appraisal, and Tangible Support subscales
of the college student version of the Interpersonal Support Evaluation
List (ISEL; Cohen & Hoberman, 1983).1 A total of 36 items assessed
the perceived availability of these three categories of support resources.
The items on the ISEL are counterbalanced: Half are positive statements
about social relationships (e.g., “I know someone at school who would
bring my meals to my room or apartment if I were sick”), and half are
negative statements about social relationships (e.g., “I don’t know anyone
at school who makes problems clearer and easier to understand”). Participants
indicated whether each of the 36 statements was true of them using
the response options definitely false, probably false, probably true, and
definitely true (scored from 1 to 4). Cronbach’s alpha was .91 at T1 and .90
at T2.
Friendship network size. Students rated the number of close friends
they currently had at college at both T1 and T2 on a 5-point scale ranging
from 0 (none) to 4 (four or more). A close friend was defined as a person
whom respondents reported feeling close to and whom they believed they
could confide in and turn to for help.
Depression. The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) short form (Beck,#p#分页标题#e#
Rial, & Rickels, 1974) was used to assess depression. The BDI assesses
attitudes and symptoms derived from clinical observations that are typically
observed in depressed psychiatric patients but not in nondepressed
psychiatric patients (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erbaugh, 1961).
The 13-item version used in the current study assessed attitudes and
symptoms, including (but not limited to) mood, sense of failure, lack of
satisfaction, social withdrawal, and indecisiveness. For each item, participants
were asked to choose from a group of four statements (rated 0 to 3
in depressive symptomatology) the statement that best described the way
they were feeling that day. Higher scores indicated greater depression.
Cronbach’s alpha was .90 at T1 and .84 at T2.
Perceived stress. Psychological stress was assessed using the 14-item
Perceived Stress Scale (PSS; Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983). The
PSS measures psychological stress experienced during the past month (e.g.,
“In the past month how often have you felt that difficulties were piling up
so high that you could not overcome them?”). Participants rated each of 14
1 Items assessing Esteem Support, the fourth subscale of the original
student ISEL, were not included in the baseline or follow-up questionnaires.
104 BRISSETTE, SCHEIER, AND CARVER
items on a 5-point response scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (very often).
Cronbach’s alpha was .90 at T1 and .89 at T2.
Results
Table 1 contains the means and standard deviations of the social
network and psychological adjustment outcomes assessed at T1
and T2. As indicated there, students reported greater social support,
larger friendship networks, and greater levels of stress (but
not depression) at the end of the semester than they did at the start
of the semester. These data are consistent with the idea that the
first semester of college is both a stressful period of time for
adolescents and an active time with respect to social network
development.
Do Optimists Develop More Extensive and Supportive
Friendship Networks Than Pessimists?
To assess whether greater optimism was associated with the
development of more extensive and supportive social networks
during the first semester of college, we correlated students’ levels
of optimism with the size of their friendship networks and their
levels of perceived support at T1. Then we assessed whether
greater optimism was a prospective predictor of changes in perceived
support and friendship network size over the course of the
semester. To do this, we created variables representing residualized
changes in perceived support and social network size by
regressing the outcomes assessed at T2 onto the appropriate T1
measures, and then in separate models, we regressed these change#p#分页标题#e#
scores on optimism (assessed at T1).
Greater optimism was associated with greater perceptions of
support (r .28, p .01) and greater friendship network size,
(r .24, p .05) at T1. Moreover, optimism was a prospective
predictor of changes in perceived social support, .30,
t(87) 3.03, p .01. Students higher in optimism reported
greater increases in perceived social support over the course of the
semester than their less optimistic counterparts. In contrast to our
expectations, greater optimism was not a significant prospective
predictor of greater increases in social network size across the
semester, .16, t(87) 1.49, p .13. However, greater
optimism was significantly associated with reports of greater
friendship network size at the end of the semester (r .27, p
.05).
The student ISEL contains items that assess the perceived availability
of support from sources at college (e.g., “I don’t know
anyone at school who would loan me their car for a couple hours”),
from specific sources away from college (e.g., “If I needed it, my
family would provide me with an allowance and spending money”),
and from sources that could presumably be either on or off
campus (e.g., “I don’t know anyone who would give me some old
furniture if I moved into my own apartment”). To distinguish
whether optimism was associated with changes in perceived support
from on-campus sources, off-campus sources, or both, we
created two measures of perceived support. The first consisted of
the 20 items in the student ISEL that explicitly referred to oncampus
sources of support. The second consisted of the 16 items
that referred to sources of support that were either clearly from off
campus (e.g., family) or could be interpreted as being off campus.
Greater optimism was a prospective predictor of greater increases
in social support from on-campus sources, .40, t(87) 4.01,
p .001, but it was not significantly associated with changes in
perceived availability of resources from off-campus sources,
.12, t(87) 1.32, p .26. This indicates that greater optimism
was associated primarily with changes in perceived support from
on-campus relationships.
To begin to examine whether the associations between optimism
and increased perceptions of support were independent of differences
in self-esteem, we tested whether greater self-esteem was
also associated with greater increases in friendship network size
and perceived social support over the course of the semester. Then
we controlled for self-esteem in our previous regression models
demonstrating a positive association between optimism and
changes in perceived social support. Students higher in optimism
reported greater self-esteem (r .54, p .01). However, selfesteem#p#分页标题#e#
was not a prospective predictor of changes in perceived
social support, .09, t(87) 1, ns, or social network size,
.15, t(87) 1.43, p .15. Further, controlling for self-esteem did
not alter the prospective relation between optimism and increases
in perceived social support, .39, t(86) 3.22, p .01. In fact,
removing the shared variance between optimism and self-esteem
increased the beta coefficient representing the prospective association
between optimism and changes in perceived support from .30
to .39. These results suggested that the associations between optimism
and changes in social support were independent of differences
in self-esteem.
Do Social Networks Mediate the Relations Between
Greater Optimism and Better Psychological Adjustment?
We then conducted a series of analyses to determine whether
optimists’ ability to develop more supportive social networks
might contribute to their superior psychological adjustment to
college as compared with pessimists. In these analyses, we determined
whether optimism was associated with better psychological
adjustment, whether increases in social support were associated
with better psychological adjustment, and whether controlling for
the relation between optimism and greater social support reduced
the relation between optimism and psychological adjustment (Baron
& Kenny, 1986).
To evaluate whether optimism was associated with better psychological
adjustment to college, we created variables representing
residualized changes in stress and depression and then in separate
models regressed these change scores on optimism (assessed at
T1). Greater optimism was associated with smaller increases in
stress, .22, t(87) 2.08, p .05, and depression .29,
t(87) 2.86, p .01, over the course of the semester. Controlling
Table 1
Adjustment and Relationship Outcomes at Time 1 and Time 2
Outcome
Time 1 Time 2
M SD M SD t(87)
Perceived stress 38.45 9.37 40.24 8.73 2.12*
Depression 5.23 5.92 5.71 6.03 1.23†
Perceived social support 74.65 18.02 80.20 16.95 3.61**
No. of close friends 3.28 1.52 4.12 1.13 5.97***
† p .10. * p .05. ** p .01. *** p .001.
OPTIMISM, SOCIAL SUPPORT, AND ADJUSTMENT 105
for self-esteem did not significantly alter the prospective associations
between optimism and smaller increases in stress .24,
t(86) 2.02, p .05 and depression, .29, t(86) 2.54, p
.05.
To determine whether the shifts in social support were associated
with psychological adjustment, we correlated the observed
shifts in stress and depression that occurred over the course of the
semester with the observed shifts in social support (using residualized
change scores). Individuals who reported greater increases#p#分页标题#e#
in social support over the semester also reported smaller increases
in depression (r.46, p .001) and smaller increases in stress,
(r .31, p .01) during this time.
We evaluated whether social support reduced the relations between
optimism and better psychological adjustment by entering a
term reflecting shifts in social support (along with optimism) into
regression models predicting residualized changes in stress and
depression. This reduced the relation between optimism and
changes in depression from .29, p .01, partial r2 8.6%,
to .16, ns, partial r2 2.5%. This also reduced the inverse
relation between optimism and increases in stress from .21,
p .05, partial r2 3.7%, to .13, ns, partial r2 1.6%.
Greater increases in social support continued to be associated with
smaller increases in stress, .26, t(86) 2.23, p .05, and
depression, .36, t(86) 3.36, p .001, independent of
optimism and the shifts in social network size. However, the shifts
in friendship network size were not associated with the residual
changes in depression, .10, t(84) 1, ns, and stress,
.02, t(84) 1, ns, independent of optimism and the shifts in
social support.
We used a formula recommended by Baron and Kenny (1986),
a modification of Sobel’s (1982) test, to assess whether the indirect
effects of optimism on depression and stress through social support
were significant. Both the paths indicating the indirect effect of
optimism through changes in social support on changes in depression
(z 2.72, p .01) and in stress (z 1.99, p .05) were
significant. To estimate the extent to which the shifts in support
reduced the relations between optimism and our adjustment outcomes,
we calculated the change in the amount of variance optimism
accounted for in the psychological adjustment outcomes
after we statistically controlled for the shifts in perceived support.
The shifts in perceived social support accounted for 71% of the
variability (8.6% 2.5%/8.6%) in the relation between optimism
and changes in depression and 67% of the variability (4.8%
1.6%/4.8%) in the relation between optimism and stress. These
analyses were consistent with the interpretation that optimists’
ability to develop more supportive social relationships accounted,
at least in part, for why they demonstrated better psychological
adjustment during the first semester of college than did pessimists.
Do Social Support and Coping Represent Independent
Paths Linking Optimism to Adjustment?
Previous empirical and theoretical work suggesting that there
might be links between individuals’ social networks and their
coping behaviors led us to evaluate the extent to which social
support and coping represent independent pathways through which#p#分页标题#e#
optimism is linked with adjustment. To begin to address this
question, we evaluated whether any of the coping behaviors we
assessed could also be considered plausible mediators of the relation
between optimism and better psychological adjustment to
college.
First we examined whether optimism was associated with coping
by correlating optimism with students’ retrospective reports
regarding the coping strategies they used during their first semesters
of college. Table 2 contains these correlations. As indicated
there, greater optimism was associated with greater use of active
coping, planning, and positive reinterpretation and growth (PRG)
and with less use of denial and behavioral disengagement.
Next we evaluated whether the coping strategies associated with
optimism were related to the shifts in depression and stress by
correlating students’ self-reports regarding the use of these strategies
with residualized changes in stress and depression. Greater
planning (r .22, p .05), active coping (r .34, p .01),
and PRG (r .38, p .001) were associated with smaller
increases in depressive symptoms across the semester. In addition,
greater use of PRG was associated with smaller increases in stress
(r .32, p .01).
Finally, for each coping behavior that satisfied the first two
conditions for mediation, we used multiple regression to assess the
extent to which controlling for the relation between optimism and
use of that strategy reduced the amount of variance that optimism
accounted for in that adjustment outcome. Because different coping
behaviors were associated with different markers of adjustment,
we conducted separate analyses for stress and depression.2
Greater PRG was identified as a potential mediator of the relation
between optimism and the shifts in stress and depression. When
use of PRG was controlled, the relation between optimism and
shifts in stress was reduced from .22, partial r2 4.8%, to
.09, partial r2 0.9%, and the relation between optimism
and shifts in depression was reduced from .29, partial r2
8.6%, to .17, partial r2 2.7%. Greater use of PRG
remained a significant predictor of shifts in depression ( .33,
p .01) and stress ( .29, p .01) independent of optimism.3
We used a modification of Sobel’s (1982) test to assess whether
the indirect effects of optimism on depression and stress through
PRG were significant. The paths indicating the indirect effect of
optimism through use of PRG on changes in either depression
(z 2.13, p .05) or stress (z 2.13, p .05) were significant.
2 We used partial correlations to determine whether the coping behaviors
were independently associated with changes in stress independent of
changes in depression and vice versa. Greater use of active coping was#p#分页标题#e#
associated with smaller increases in depression (partial r.29, p .01)
independent of changes in stress. Greater use of PRG was associated with
smaller increases in stress (partial r .22, p .05) independent of
changes in depression and smaller increases in depression (partial r
.30, p .01) independent of changes in stress. Greater use of planning
was marginally associated with smaller increases in depression (partial r
.20, p .06) independent of shifts in stress. Because the greater use of
these coping strategies was independently associated with these markers of
adjustment, we treated stress and depression as separate markers of adjustment
in our subsequent analyses.
3 The use of planning and active coping failed to satisfy this final
requirement for mediation. Optimism remained a significant predictor of
shifts in depression independent of both active coping and planning (
.24, p .05). Greater active coping was associated with shifts in depression
independent of optimism ( .21, p .05), but greater planning
( .13, ns) was not.
106 BRISSETTE, SCHEIER, AND CARVER
To investigate the links among optimism, the two potential
mediational pathways identified, and adjustment, we correlated
optimism with the use of PRG and with the variables reflecting
changes in social support, stress, and depression. Table 3 contains
this correlation matrix. As can be seen there, students reporting
greater increases in social support reported greater use of PRG.
However, that the two were only moderately correlated (r .36,
p .01) suggested that they might have distinct associations with
stress and depression.
Next we constructed two path models (with changes in stress
and changes in depression as the outcomes). These models are
depicted in Figure 1. As indicated there, greater optimism was
independently associated with greater increases in social support
and with the greater use of PRG. However, there were links
between individuals’ levels of social support and their use of PRG.
Students who demonstrated greater increases in social support
reported greater use of PRG. With regard to depression, both the
greater use of PRG ( .24, p .05) and greater increases in
social support ( .29, p .05) were independently associated
with smaller increases in depressive symptoms. However, only the
greater use of PRG was independently associated with the changes
in stress that occurred across the semester, and the indirect path
from optimism through PRG on stress was significant ( .25,
p .05). The changes in social support were not associated with
the changes in stress (path not shown; .13, ns) independent
of the use of PRG.
Discussion
The present work replicated past studies indicating that optimists#p#分页标题#e#
report more social support and extended these studies by
demonstrating that greater optimism was associated with greater
increases in social support during the first semester of college.
Additional analyses indicated that the greater increases in perceived
social support reported by students who were more optimistic
were a reflection of changes in perceived support from oncampus
sources and were independent of changes in perceived
social support from off-campus sources. Greater optimism was
also associated with having larger friendship networks after the
first 2 weeks of college, but it did not predict greater increases in
friendship network size over the course of the semester. Taken
together, these results suggest that the associations between optimism
and increased social support are a reflection of higher quality
friendships, not more extensive friendship networks. The possibility
remains, however, that differences or changes in the size or
structure of other aspects of optimists’ social networks contribute
to the greater increases they report in perceived support from
on-campus sources.
One explanation for our failure to find an association between
greater optimism and greater increases in friendship network size
could be that optimists developed more extensive networks during
the first weeks of the semester and simply maintained these larger
networks over the course of the semester. In keeping with this, we
found that greater optimism was significantly associated with
reports of greater friendship network size at both the beginning and
end of the first semester of college. However, it is also possible
that our measure of network size contributed to our inability to find
a prospective association between optimism and greater increases
in social network size. Because the measure we used limited social
network size to “4 or more close friends,” it may not have been
sensitive enough to detect changes in friendship network size at the
higher end of the distribution. Furthermore, because the initial
assessment of friendship network size occurred after the students
were on campus for 2 weeks, it may not have represented a true
baseline from which to assess change.
These findings also replicated and extended studies indicating
that social support represents a means through which optimism is
linked with better adjustment to stressful life events. Optimists
displayed smaller increases in stress and depression during their
Table 2
Correlations Between Optimism and Dimensions
of Situational Coping
Coping dimension r (n 89)
Acceptance .02
Active coping .25*
Behavioral disengagement .43***
Denial .39***
Alcohol–drug disengagement .11
Focus on venting emotions .06#p#分页标题#e#
Humor .09
Mental disengagement .05
Planning .35**
Positive reinterpretation and growth .28**
Turning to religion .14
Restraint coping .16
Suppression of competing activities .03
Seeking social support—instrumental .04
Seeking social support—emotional .02
* p .05. ** p .01. *** p .001.
Table 3
Correlations Among Optimism, Use of Positive Reinterpretation and Growth,
and Changes in Social Support and Psychological Adjustment
Variable 1 2 3 4 5
1. Optimism — .31** .28** .29** .22*
2. Change in perceived social support — .36** .46*** .31**
3. Use of PRG — .37*** .31**
4. Change in depression — .42***
5. Change in perceived stress —
Note. PRG positive reinterpretation and growth.
* p .05. ** p .01. *** p .001.
OPTIMISM, SOCIAL SUPPORT, AND ADJUSTMENT 107
first semester of college than did pessimists. Our mediational
analyses were consistent with the interpretation that the increases
in social support associated with optimism played an instrumental
role in explaining the association between optimism and better
psychological adjustment. This replicates previous work indicating
that a supportive social network promotes adjustment to stressful
life events (e.g., Cohen & Wills, 1985) and raises the possibility
that differences in the quality of social networks are critical in
linking optimism to better adjustment in this context. One way in
which greater social support may have promoted adaptation is by
leading students to perceive their circumstances as less threatening.
In addition, the available perceived social provisions may
have directly influenced students’ efforts to cope with both the
obstacles they encountered during their first semester and their
emotional responses to these obstacles (see Barrera, 1986, and
Cohen & Wills, 1985, for additional models of social support and
adaptation to life stress).
The absence of an association between friendship network size
and better psychological adjustment to college (independent of
social support) may reflect the possibility that a large friendship
network increases exposure to social stressors for college students.
For example, a larger friendship network may provide increased
opportunity for social conflict, which has a negative impact on
psychological well-being (Rook, 1984). Moreover, students who
possess larger friendship networks are likely to be exposed to more
social stressors indirectly, by virtue of their friends’ experiences,
than those who possess smaller friendship networks.
Because we studied college students during their first semester
of college and our statistical models were based on shifts in social
support, our results can be interpreted as indicating that more#p#分页标题#e#
optimistic students display better adjustment because they develop
greater social support on campus during their first semester. However,
because we assessed optimism only at T1, we cannot address
whether students’ levels of optimism also changed over the course
of the semester along with their friendship networks, perceptions
of support, and levels of psychological adjustment. Rendering this
possibility less plausible are data from previous studies indicating
that mean levels of optimism remain stable over time and show
high test–retest correlations (rs range from .74 to .84) in adult and
college student samples (Dougall et al., 2001; Park & Folkman,
1997; Schulz, Tompkins, & Rau, 1988). For example, in a study of
adult HIV caregivers, Park and Folkman (1997) found that mean
levels of optimism remained quite stable despite increases in
caregiver demand and bereavement. However, a definitive test of
whether students’ global outcome expectancies change in response
to life transitions such as the first semester of college would
require additional data collection.
We also replicated research documenting the mediational role of
coping in producing the association between optimism and superior
adjustment to stressful life events. More important, we extended
this work by evaluating whether social support and coping
represented independent paths linking greater optimism to better
adjustment. We found that optimists reported greater use of PRG,
active coping, and planning and less use of denial and behavioral
Figure 1. Path analyses of changes in (A) depression and (B) stress. Values depicted are standardized partial
regression coefficients. All coefficients depicted are significant.
108 BRISSETTE, SCHEIER, AND CARVER
disengagement. Our mediational analyses were consistent with the
interpretation that the greater use of PRG among optimists contributed
to smaller increases in stress and depression across the
semester. However, because these findings were based on crosssectional
analyses, we cannot rule out the influence of levels of
adjustment on coping behaviors (Coyne & Racioppo, 2000).
The finding that the use of PRG partially mediated the relation
between optimism and better adjustment is consistent with evidence
indicating that the ability to remain positive and extract
benefit from stressful life circumstances is an important factor in
maintaining psychological and physical health. For example,
Bower, Kemeny, Taylor, and Fahey (1998) found that the ability to
find meaning was associated with lower CD4 (a protein marker
whose decline indicates HIV/AIDS progression) decline and less
AIDS-related mortality among bereaved HIV-seropositive men.
Moreover, Cruess et al. (2000) reported that benefit finding mediated#p#分页标题#e#
the association between a cognitive–behavioral stress management
intervention enacted for women with breast cancer and
cortisol, a stress hormone (see also Antoni et al., 2001). Our data
are consistent with the idea that possessing an optimistic outlook
enables students to reinterpret their current stressful life circumstances
in a way that is more positive and less threatening.
Both social support and the use of PRG made small, independent
contributions to the relations between greater optimism and
better psychological adjustment. However, the majority of the
variance in the relations between optimism and stress and optimism
and depression was shared with both of the proposed mediators.
These findings are consistent with previous theoretical and
empirical work (Parkes, 1986; Thoits, 1986) indicating that individuals’
social networks and coping behaviors represent distinct
but related resources that can influence adaptation to life stress.
Although our data indicate that greater use of PRG is associated
with greater social support, the present study design does not
enable us to draw any inferences about the direction of the relations
among the use of PRG, the development of social support,
and adjustment. Future studies using additional assessments of
coping, social networks, and adjustment over time would be necessary
to establish the temporal relations among these variables.
Perceived Social Support as Personality
We conceptualized students’ perceptions of social support as
being a characteristic of their social networks. However, there is a
considerable body of research that treats perceived social support
as a reflection of personality (Pierce, Lakey, Sarason & Sarason,
1997; Sarason, Sarason, & Shearin, 1986). Theorists who view
perceived support in this manner contend that individuals develop
stable expectations regarding the availability of support in relationships
partly on the basis of their past realities. These expectancies
presumably influence the perception of available support by
influencing among other things how objective support from the
environment is interpreted and the amount of support others provide
(Lakey & Cassidy, 1990). Data indicating that perceptions of
social support remain stable across time (despite changes in network
composition), and studies suggesting that perceived support
displays characteristics similar to other personality characteristics,
provide support for the view that perceived support represents an
underlying dimension of personality (see Pierce et al., 1997).
Because the mean levels of social support in this sample were
greater at the end of the semester than at the beginning of the
semester, it can be argued that our measure of perceived support
captured more than just stable differences in personality. On the#p#分页标题#e#
other hand, the fact that students’ perceptions of social support at
the beginning of the semester were highly correlated (r .63, p
.001) with their perceptions of social support at the semester’s end
indicates some stability in perceived support over the semester as
well. These findings suggest our measures of perceived social
support captured both stable differences in perceived support and
fluctuations in perceived support (presumably reflective of the
development of new relationships at college).
Our previous analyses suggested the greater increases in perceived
social support reported by students who were more optimistic
contributed to the superior adjustment they experienced
during their first semester of college. One question is whether
optimism was also associated with the portion of perceived social
support that remained stable over the course of the semester. A
second, related question is whether these stable differences in
perceived support also operate as a mediator of the associations
between greater optimism and better adjustment. Optimism was
positively correlated (r .34, p .01) with the portion of
perceived social support that remained stable over the semester
(represented by the covariance between T1 perceived support and
T2 perceived support). However, the stable portion of our perceived
support measures was not associated with the changes in
stress (r .18, p .10) and depression (r .11, ns) observed
over the course of the semester, and therefore could not have
operated as a mediator of the associations between optimism and
superior adjustment to college. Thus, our data suggest that it was
the changes in perceived support over the course of the semester
that was critical in explaining why greater optimism was related to
superior adjustment to college in this sample.
The Contribution of Alternative Personality
Characteristics
Another issue addressed in this research was the extent to which
the effects of optimism were specific to optimism. We demonstrated
that the associations among greater optimism, increased
social support, and better adjustment to college were independent
of individual differences in self-esteem. In fact, removing the
shared variance between optimism and self-esteem appeared to
strengthen the association between optimism and increases in
perceived support. One explanation for this latter finding could be
that excessive feelings of self-worth might be associated with
interpersonal behaviors that inhibit the development of social
support (Baumeister, Bushman, & Campbell, 2000). That our
findings regarding optimism, social network development, and
adjustment could not be attributed to differences in self-esteem
provided further justification for discriminating optimism from#p#分页标题#e#
this conceptually related construct.
One question that remains, however, is the extent to which our
findings regarding optimism are independent of other related dimensions
of personality, such as extraversion (Eysenck, 1967;
McCrae & John, 1992). Extraversion shares conceptual ground
with optimism, and greater extraversion has been demonstrated to
be associated with greater perceived support from peers after the
first 3 months of college (Asendorpf & Wilpers, 1998). Because
OPTIMISM, SOCIAL SUPPORT, AND ADJUSTMENT 109
we did not assess extraversion in this study, we cannot empirically
address the unique contribution of optimism to the findings reported.
However, previous studies indicating weak to moderate
associations (rs ranging from .29 to .43) between optimism and
extraversion render the interpretation that our findings can be
explained solely in terms of differences in extraversion somewhat
less plausible (Marshall Wortman, Kusulas, Hervig, & Vickers,
1992; Mroczek, Spiro, Aldwin, Ozer, & Bosse, 1993).
To our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate associations
among optimism, social support development, coping, and
adjustment. Therefore, some caution should be taken in interpreting
the findings until they are replicated. Because first-year college
students possess few, if any, relationships when they first arrive on
campus, they represent an ideal sample for examining questions
about personality and social network development. However, firstyear
college students are relatively homogeneous. One way to
examine whether our findings generalize to other populations
would be to study other groups of people making a transition into
new social networks. Useful populations for this purpose might
include older adults moving into long-term community care facilities,
younger children entering new schools, and adults moving
into new (unfamiliar) neighborhoods.
In sum, the present research suggests that optimists exhibit
improved psychological well-being and better adjustment to stressful
life events both as a result of the coping strategies they use and
because of their ability to generate more supportive social networks.
It also suggests that there are relations between the coping
strategies people use and their levels of social support. Taken
together, the findings reported contribute to our understanding of
the pathways through which optimism influences adjustment to
stressful life events. In addition, they highlight the need for additional
theoretical integration regarding how individuals’ personalities,
coping efforts, and social networks operate in concert to
influence psychological adaptation to the stressful life events that
are encountered.
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http://www.ukthesis.org/dissertation_writing/sociology/Received February 12, 2001
Revision received August 2, 2001
Accepted August 6, 2001
OPTIMISM, SOCIAL SUPPORT, AND ADJUSTMENT 111
