市场营销dissertation浅析视图营销和战略营销

 

“A co-ordinated process which makes the best use of available resources to present a product proposition to a target market in order to achieve objectives, and then evaluating how successfully this has been done”. Peter Verwey, TMA Marketing Manual

 

“We live in an age when methods of communication are changing more rapidly than ever before…. a time when the traditional arts must work harder than ever to secure their audience and when the emerging arts must think imaginatively to develop the crucial relationship between art and audience. That relationship is never static. Audiences cannot be taken for granted….The wider audience is out there—it is up to us to tempt them in”. Andrew Motion, Poet Laureate.

 

The true challenge of marketing and audience development is planning strategically in a way which will ensure that the plan that emerges is realistic to the needs, wants and resources you have to hand as an individual or an organisation. An unrealistic marketing strategy or plan is not worth the paper it is written on.

 

什么是策略—What is Strategy?

 

There is an inherent problem of defining strategy: strategy means different things to different people.

 

" There is no single, universally accepted definition". Mintzberg & Quinn (1991)

 

The Roots of strategy come from- Ancient Greek military usage ‘strategos’:

 

Initially it was a role - the general in command of an army. Later strategy became "the art of the general".

 

By the time of Percales (450 BC) it had become a recognised "managerial skill";

 

By the time of Alexander (300 BC) strategy was: "the skill of employing forces to overcome opposition and create a unified system of global governance" Evered (1980)

 

Modern business usage i.e. ‘Corporate’ Strategy has become a metaphorical extension of the ancient & modern (military concept).

 

There are many comparative definitions of strategy, here are just a few: "(strategy) is the determination of the basic long term goals and objectives of an enterprise, and the adoption of the courses of action and the allocation of resources necessary for carrying out those goals." Chandler, A.D (1962) Business historian Chandler subscribes to the view that strategy is as much about defining goals and objectives as it is about providing the means for achieving them.

 

Kenneth Andrews (1987), distinguishes between corporate strategy which is the lead strategy, and business strategy, a secondary, yet vital, aspect of corporate strategy:"...a pattern of decisions ... (which represent) ... the unity, coherence and internal constituency of a company's strategic decisions that position a company in its environment and give the firm its identity, its power to mobilise its strengths, and its likelihood of success in the marketplace."

 

By comparison, Ansoff and McDonnell (1990), separate strategy (concerned with means) from goal-setting (concerned with ends). They define strategic management as: "a systematic approach for managing strategic change which consists of the following:

 

1. positioning of the firm through strategy and capability planning;

 

2. real-time strategic response through issue management;

 

3. systematic management of resistance during strategic implementation."

 

Cole, (1997) proposes a working definition of strategic management to be: "a process, directed by top management, to determine the fundamental aims or goals of the organisation, and ensure a range of decisions which will allow for the achievement of those aims or goals in the long-term, whilst providing for adaptive responses in the short term.

 

Definitions of strategy fall into five categories with differing areas of emphasis:

 

· A plan: “a consciously intended course of action”.

 

· A ploy: “a manoeuvre intended to outwit a competitor”.

 

· A pattern: underpinning “a stream of actions”.

 

· A position: a deliberate stance taken in relation to the environment.

 

· A perspective: an all embracing way of thinking about the organisation and its approach to the world.

 

Most ‘strategies’ mix elements of the five aspects at one and the same time.

 

“A strategy is the pattern or plan that integrates an organisation’s major goals, policies and action(s)...into a cohesive whole”. (Quinn 1980)

 

市场营销计划—Marketing Plans and Planning

 

A marketing plan has been defined as:

 

“ A written statement of the marketing aims of a company, including a statement of the products, targets for sales, market shares and profits, promotional and advertising strategies, pricing policies, distribution channels etc. with precise specification of timescales, individual responsibilities etc”. (Masner, 1988)

 

To achieve this marketing plan, the organisation will have to go through a number of stages which take the form of questions, as follows:

 

Where are we now? - the analysis of the current marketing situation.

 

Where do we want to be in the future? - setting the objectives.

 

How are we going to get there? – creating the strategy

 

How will we know when we get there? - Monitoring and evaluation.

 

执行市场营销计划的过程—The marketing planning process

 

Strategic Marketing Planning takes time, but is well worth the effort the process can be split into four clearly defined areas, it is useful to think of the effective marketing process as a triangle. The more time spent at the beginning on the foundations of the strategy, the analysis and planning stages, the stronger the top of the triangle, the communications and action that ensue. The marketing plan is achieved at the end of the planning process and should be a short, working, summary document of all the environment analysis which precedes it.

 

一般营销计划的格式—Format of a typical marketing plan

 

1. INTRODUCTION

 

2. OBJECTIVES—Company mission statement.

 

Aim = the ends, Objectives = the means.

 

3. PRODUCT / SERVICE MARKET BACKGROUND—present market overview (marketing audit).Sales summary, market research and analysis.

 

4. SWOT / PEST ANALYSIS—company SWOT and competitor SWOT. SWOT analysis is sometimes presented as a situational analysis (of where would we like to be in the future?).

 

6. MARKETING STRATEGY—target market segments, basis of competition USP (unique selling point).Detailed plan of action, tasks, measurable outputs with timescales and responsibilities.

 

7. MARKETING MIX—promotional objectives, promotional plan and budget / costs. Pricing strategies and distribution arrangements.

 

8. STATEMENT OF EXPECTED SALES—sales forecasts for each target market.

 

9. CONTROL AND EVALUATION—a statement of action necessary if things are going out of control.

 

市场营销计划的利益—Benefits of marketing planning stem

 

Better anticipation of change and less vulnerability to the unexpected.

 

A long term perspective and proactive responses to environmental changes.

 

Acceptance of the need for change and preparedness to meet change.

 

Fewer bad decisions when taken by surprise.

 

Greater inter-functional co-ordination

 

Better communication and less conflict between individuals.

 

Minimum waste and duplication of resources.

 

The existence of a structure around which to manage.

 

商业与商业之间的市场营销—Business to business marketing
 

Business-to-business marketing is the marketing of goods and services to businesses in order to keep those companies operating. The most common business-to-business markets are manufacturers, resellers, the government and non-profit institutions. Most businesses that fall into these categories do make some money off of a consumer base; however, the majority of their capital is made off of other businesses. The biggest differences between business-to-business and business-to-consumer marketing are the types of goods and services being marketed and the types of entities the goods and services are being marketed to. Business-to-business marketers promote goods and services that will help other companies run. Some of the things businesses produce for other businesses include equipment, components, raw materials, processing services and supplies. In addition, because business-to-business marketers target only other companies, they have a significantly more targeted market than business-to-consumer marketers. Even when marketing very specific products for a fairly small subset of individuals, the latter type of marketer has a far larger audience than the former. Business-to-business marketing is currently one of the fastest-growing areas of marketing. As technology brings more businesses together, companies are beginning to court each other far more aggressively. And as technology makes the world a smaller place, it becomes more important for marketing and sales professionals to understand and implement the principles of business-to-business marketing.

 

商业与客户之间的营销—BUISNESS TO CONSUMER MARKETING

 

Selling to businesses vs. selling to the consumer

 

There are six key factors that set business-to-business marketing apart from consumer marketing:

 

1. The business buyer wants to buy. Most consumer advertising offers people products they might enjoy but don’t really need. How many subscription promotions, for example, sell publications that the reader truly could not live without? If we subscribe, we do so for pleasure - not because the information offered is essential to our day-to-day activity.

 

But in business-to-business marketing, the situation is different. The business buyer wants to buy. Indeed, all business enterprises must routinely buy products and services that help them stay profitable, competitive, and successful. The proof of his is the existence of the purchasing agent, whose sole function is to purchase things.

 

2. The business buyer is sophisticated. Business-to-business copy talks to a sophisticated audience. Your typical reader has a high interest in - and understanding of - your product (or at least of the problem it solves).

 

Importantly, the reader usually knows more about the product and its use than you do. It would be folly, for example, to believe that a few days spent reading about mainframe computers will educate you to the level of your target prospect - a systems analyst with six or seven years experience. (This realization makes business-to-business writers somewhat more humble than their consumer counterparts.)

 

The sophistication of the reader requires the business-to-business copywriter to do a tremendous amount of research and digging into the market, the product, and its application. The business audience does not respond well to slogans or oversimplification.

 

3. The business buyer will read a lot of copy. The business buyer is an information-seeker, constantly on the lookout for information and advice that can help the buyer do the job better, increase profits, or advance his career.

 

“Our prospects are turned off by colorful, advertising-type sales brochures,” says the marketing manager of a company selling complex ‘systems’ software products to large IBM data centers. “They are hungry for information and respond better to letters and bulletins that explain, in fairly technical terms, what our product is and how it solves a particular data-center problem.”

 

Don’t be afraid to write long copy in mailers, ads, and fulfillment brochures. Prospects will read your message - if it is interesting, important, and relevant to their needs. And don’t hesitate to use informational pieces as response hooks for ads and mailers. The offer of a free booklet, report, or technical guide can still pull well - despite the glut of reading matter clogging the prospect’s in-basket.#p#分页标题#e#

 

4. A multistep buying process. In consumer direct response, copywriters’ fees are geared toward producing the “package” - an elaborate mailing that does the bulk of the selling job for a publication, insurance policy, or other mail order product.

 

But in business-to-business direct marketing, the concept of package or control is virtually non-existent. Why? Because the purchase of most business products is a multistep buying process. A vice president of manufacturing doesn’t clip a coupon and order a $35,000 machine by mail. First he asks for a brochure. Then a sales meeting. Then a demonstration. Then a 30-day trial. Then a proposal or contract.

 

Thus, it is not a single piece of copy that wins the contract award. Rather, it takes a series of letters, brochures, presentations, ads, and mailers - combined with the efforts of salespeople - to turn a cold lead into a paying customer.

 

5. Multiple buying influences. You don’t usually consult with a team of experts when you want to buy a fast-food hamburger, a soda, bottle of shampoo, or a pair of shoes, do you? In most consumer selling situations, the purchase decision is made by an individual. But a business purchase is usually a team effort, with many players involved.

 

For this reason, a business purchase is rarely an “impulse” buy. Many people influence the decision - from the purchasing agent and company president, to technical professionals and end-users. Each of these audiences has different concerns and criteria by which they judge you. To be successful, your copy must address the needs of all parties involved with the decision. In many cases, this requires separate mailings to many different people within an organization.

 

6. Business products are more complex. Most business products - and their applications - are more complex than consumer products. (For example, clients I now serve include a commercial bank, a manufacturer of elevator control systems, a data processing training firm, a database marketing company, a mailing list broker, a general contractor, and a semiconductor manufacturer.)

 

Business-to-business copy cannot be superficial. Clarity is essential. You cannot sell by “fooling” the prospect or hiding the identity of your product. Half the battle is explaining, quickly and simply, what your product is, what it does, and why the reader should be interested in it. “In high-tech direct mail, the key is to educate the prospect,” say Mark Toner, who manages the advertising program for Amano, a manufacturer of computerized time-clock systems. “With a product like ours, most customers don’t even know of its existence.”

 

In short, in business-to-business marketing, the rules are different. In the months to come, we’ll explore ways to increase response and profits in this exciting and challenging marketplace.

 

商业买家寻找个人利益的机会—Business buyers are looking for personal benefits

 

In a column titled “The 7 Key Differences Between Business-To-Business And Consumer Marketing,” I described the six key factors that set business-to-business marketing apart from consumer marketing. They are:

 

The business buyer wants to buy.

 

The business buyer is sophisticated.

 

The business buyer is an information seeker who will read a lot of copy.

 

Business-to-business marketing involves a multistep buying process.

 

The buying decision is frequently made by a committee and not by an individual.

 

Business products are generally more complex than consumer products. Recently, I have formulated a seventh principle which I would like to add to the list

 

The business buyer buys for his company’s benefit - and his own. There are two parts to this principle. Let’s take them one at a time.

 

 

商业买家的买卖为其公司谋利—The Business Buyer Buys For His Company’s Benefit

 

The business buyer must acquire products and services that benefit his company. This means the product or service saves the company time or money, makes money, improves productivity, increases efficiency or solves problems.

 

Let’s say, for example, that you sell a telecommunications network and your primary advantage over the competition is that your system reduces monthly operating expenses by 50 percent. If a prospect is spending $40,000 a month for your competitor’s network, you can replace it and provide his company with the same level of service for only $20,000 a month.

 

The company benefits because it saves $240,000 a year in communications costs - more than $1 million in a five-year period.

 

Yet, despite this tremendous benefit, you find that prospects are not buying. They seem interested, and you get a lot of inquiries. But few sales are closed.

 

Why? Because in addition to buying for his company’s benefit, the prospect also buys for himself.

 

商业买家的买卖为其自身谋利—The Business Buyer Buys For His Own Benefit

 

The second part of principle #7 is that, while the buyer is looking to do right by his company, he has an equal (if not greater) concern for his own well-being and selfish interests.

 

Although the idea of saving $240,000 a year with your telecommunications system is appealing to your prospect, his thought process is as follows:

 

“Right now I have an AT&T system. Your system sounds good but I don’t know you or your company. If I switch and something goes wrong, I will be blamed. I may even get fired. My boss will say, ‘You shouldn’t have gambled on an unproven product from an unknown vendor - why didn’t you stick with good ole reliable AT&T?’ He will say this even though he approved my decision. So to be safe, I will stick with my current system...even though it costs my company an extra $240,000 a year. After all, I’d rather see them spend an extra $240,000 a year than me lose my $60,000-a-year-job!”

 

This play-it-safe mentality is only natural, and it affects buying decisions daily in corporations throughout the country. Data processing professionals are fond of saying, “Nobody ever got fired for buying IBM.” Buying IBM ensures the prospect that no one can criticize his decision, even if brand X is the better choice from a business and technical point of view.

 

A corporate pension fund manager, writing in Money magazine, noted that no money manager ever got fired for losing money invested in a blue-chip stock. A different example, but the principle remains the same.

 

商业买家为其自身—The Business Buyer Is For Himself

 

Concern for making the safe, acceptable decision is a primary motivation of business buyers, but it is not the only reason why business buyers choose products, services and suppliers that are not necessarily the best business solution to their company’s problem.

 

Avoiding stress or hardship is a big concern among prospects. For example, a consultant might offer a new system for increasing productivity, but it means more paperwork for the shipping department...and especially for the head of the shipping department. If he has anything to say about it, and thinks no one will criticize him for it, the head of shipping will, in this case, work to sway the committee against engaging the consultant or using his system...even though the current procedures are not efficient. The department head, already overworked, wants to avoid something he perceives as a hassle and a headache, despite its contribution to the greater good of the organization.

 

Fear of the unknown is also a powerful motivator. A middle manager, for example, might vote against acquiring desktop publishing and putting a terminal on every manager’s desk because he himself has computer phobia. Even though he recognizes the benefit such technology can bring to his department, he wants to avoid the pain of learning something he perceives to be difficult and frightening. Again, personal benefit outweighs corporate benefit in this situation.

 

Fear of loss is another powerful motivator. An advertising manager in a company that has handled its advertising in-house for the past decade may resist his president’s suggestion that they retain an outside advertising agency to handle the company’s rapidly expanding marketing campaign. Even if he respects the ad agency and believes they will do a good job, the ad manager may campaign against them, fearing that bringing in outside experts will diminish his own status within the company.

 

In these and many other instances, the business buyer is for himself first; and his company, second. To be successful, your copy must not only promise the benefits the prospect desires for his company; it should also speak to the prospect’s personal agenda, as well.