荷兰本科毕业dissertation代写：教育产业化分析dissertation
08-29, 2014
教育的发展
在本文中，因为分裂的原因，孟加拉国和巴基斯坦的中小学教育状况已被巴基斯坦的教育发展所代替描述。这项研究通过识字率和入学率的结果表示，强调了孟加拉国的教育在1971年后的改进。对这些因素进行了研究，各自的政府提出关于经济和教育的决策。有关这两个国家目前统计数据的研究已被用于教育定论提出的假设达成分裂之前的差距，并在分裂后的基础上进行改进。
1947年，穆斯林教徒的独立性导致了一个穆斯林国家——巴基斯坦的形成，包括东孟加拉（东巴基斯坦），旁遮普省，信德省，俾路支省和西北边境的省[1]。领土的不连续性，文化差异和政治偏见是阻碍东方和西方融合为联邦一级的因素。因为两翼之间的这些因素，资源配置的结果是不公平的，它偏向于西巴基斯坦。冲突的继续发生并未能解决这些问题，同时还导致了东巴基斯坦于1971年脱离西巴基斯坦。
Documented To Depict The Development Of Education Economics Essay
In this paper, the state of primary and secondary education in Bangladesh and Pakistan has been documented to depict the development of education in Bangladesh since secession. This research highlights the improvement in education in Bangladesh post-1971, as indicated through literacy rates and enrolment in education. These factors have been studied with regard to economic and education policy decisions by the respective governments. A study of current statistics pertaining to both countries has been used to explore the proposed hypothesis to reach a final conclusion on regional disparity in education prior to partition, on the basis of improvement after partition.
Introduction:
In 1947, independence of the Muslims from Hindus led to the formation of a Muslim state, Pakistan; comprising of East Bengal (East Pakistan), Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan and NWFP [1] . Territorial discontinuity, cultural differences and political biases were an impediment to integration of the East and West at the Federal level. As a result of these factors resource allocation between the two wings was unequal that is biased in favor of West Pakistan. Conflicts continued to arise and failure to resolve them led to secession of East Pakistan from West Pakistan in 1971.
Inequitable distribution of resources affected all sectors of society in East Pakistan. Infrastructure development was limited and there was minimal improvement in social sectors. (Reference). Hence GDP per capita of East Pakistan was much less than GDP per capita of West Pakistan.
Research has been undertaken to study how far resource allocation was inequitable and how it affected different sectors of the economy and society up till 1971. Trend analyses of the state of different sectors of the economy from 1971 to recent times have also been done to prove or disprove theories regarding discrimination in resource allocation. Existence of disparity did not only affect the economy but social sectors, such as education in particular, as well. Various researches have been conducted to highlighting the growth in the Bengali economy after secession, attributing limited development prior to 1971 to disparity in resource allocation between East and West Pakistan. (Reference)#p#分页标题#e#
Limited efforts to improve education in a country also affect the growth of the economy. A study of growth of education and growth of the Bengali economy since 1971 would depict whether limited growth prior to this period could actually be attributed to resource contraints at the federal level. The objective of this study is to examine whether there existed systematic bias in the distribution of educational resources and facilities during 1947–1971 between East and West Pakistan.(cite asadullah). Hence, this research has examined the change in educational infrastructure of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and West Pakistan (now Pakistan) between 1971 and 2008 to determine the extent to which disparities limited the growth of primary and secondary education in East Pakistan.
A review of literature depicted that little comparative analysis has been done on this issue. An earlier study (cite asadullah) on existing disparity at the time of partition has been taken as the starting point for this study. A description of the economic policies of the two states [2] provides a political context for the analysis. A thorough review of particular policies regarding education in the respective countries depicts how these policies affected educational planning before and after 1971.
Several factors have been identified to compare inter-state differences in spread and quality of education from 1971 to 2008. These include expenditure on education; literacy rates; number of educational institutions at primary and secondary level; enrolment at each stage by gender; and teaching staff. A conclusion has been made on whether limited growth in education in East Pakistan was due to disparity in resource allocation based on the result of this analysis.
Review of literature:
Although past literature has focused on the question of economic disparity, relatively little is known about inequalities that existed between the two regions in other spheres such as education. A research on inter-regional differences in educational resources brought to surface that disparity existed, whether as a function of resources constraints or discrimination at the federal level. (cite asadullah) differences may be due to these factors or educational disparity may have resulted from inability to account for demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the two populations and deal with them accordingly. (cite asadullah, intro).
Since this research several researches and reports have been compiled on the educational systems of Pakistan and Bangladesh by private organizations and governments. Statistical reports by the National Educational Management Information System (NEMIS, Pakistan), and Bangladesh Bureau of Education Information and Statistics (BANBEIS) clearly indicate the state of education in the two countries, providing a basis for comparison. The National education Consensus 2005/06 was the first such survey in the history of Pakistan, which provides an in-depth outlook of the education system covering all types of educational institutions. Data from the 2007 publication of Pakistan Education Statistics 2005-2006 was also studied, to ensure that this paper depicts the latest available statistical information.#p#分页标题#e#
Other studies by organizations like the United Nations and individuals on the current state of education, and comparisons on the education system before partition (Educational disparity in East and West Pakistan, 1947-71: Was East Pakistan discriminated against?, Mohammed Niaz Asadullah, 2006) give a theoretical basis for comparison of education in the concerned regions in an objective manner. A review of these sources indicates that disparities existed and differences in educational indicators continue to exist. Furthermore, a review of books about East and West Pakistan before and after separation gives the political context in which to analyze these educational disparities.
Methodology:
This research is primarily based on secondary sources. Sources include past and current statistics from consensus’ conducted by the concerned governments, books by authors from various disciplines and nationalities, newspaper articles, other research papers, research journals and other relevant official documents that can be accessed. The information is used to evaluate education indicators and to draw comparisons, to help benchmark the system's characteristics. This paper makes extensive use of tables and charts to convey information and help analyze the particular aspects of education under review. Deductive analysis of statistics is used for a comparative study of the state of education in the two regions and give conclusions. In the light of these and other sources the research questions are answered through exploration and analysis of the situation in context of the political and economic conditions prevalent at that time.
Operational Definitions
Education: Formal education imparted by a registered school, private or public.
Literacy:
Literacy in Pakistan: "The ability to read, write and calculate simple symbols, digits, words, sentences, texts, with understanding at normal speed, and tackle everyday life problems related to citizenship, gender sensitivity, health, ethics and technical know-how to improve life and ultimately the society.” The definition refers to Literacy and Numeracy Skills components. Add footnote: ( national curriculum for literacy 2007)
Literacy in Bangladesh: The basic learning needs of the people comprise both essential learning tools and the basic learning content required to be able to survive, to develop their full capacities, to live and to work in dignity, to participate fully in development, to improve the quality of their lives, to make informed decisions and to continue learning ( http://www.iiz-dvv.de/index.php?article_id=340&clang=1 - last accessed on 11th January 2011)
Primary Education: School education from Nursery to Grade 6
Secondary Education: School education from Grade 7-12
Disparity: Differences in the availability and quality of education due to unequal resource allocation among the two regions, i.e. East Pakistan and West Pakistan.#p#分页标题#e#
Discrimination: Unfair treatment of a certain region due to cultural or political biases.
Background: Economic policies
Pre-1971
Prior to division in 1971, Pakistan was governed under a federal structure of government. Commerce, foreign affairs and defence were controlled by the central government while social infrastructure was under respective provincial governments. However, due to the power struggles and inconsistent government structures(find reference) there was no clear distinction in planning, implementation and monitoring of development projects related to social infrastructure. This was undertaken by both the centre and provincial governments. The extent of Central Government intervention varied over time with changes in the political landscape of the country. (Sadeque, 1957)(find reference) This had consequences for development of provinces [3] .
Firstly, it must be noted that Central government was set up in West Pakistan, primarily because the ruling elite migrated to the western wing. To further understand the nature of development in East and West Pakistan representation of provinces at the centre must be understood. From 1947-54, central government was dominated by the ruling elite – Muhajirs and Punjabis – who controlled the bureaucratic apparatus and armed forces. Other ethnic groups such as the Balochis, Sindhis, Pathans had limited representation at the centre. The Bengalis were also under-represented.
In 1955 the ‘One Unit’ policy was introduced (find reference). To resolve issues of representation with East Pakistan, the four provinces of the Western Wing were merged into one administrative unit known as West Pakistan. This only served to strengthen the position of the ruling elite over ethnic groups in the western province through provincial government, and over East Pakistan through the Central government.
Within the bounds of this political structure the Pakistani government went through several transitions between 1947 and 1971. There was a constant struggle between the civilian government, feudal lords and the Pakistani army. Control of government oscillated between these three parties. From 1947-56 there was no constitution in place. A civilian government operated for two years under the 1956 Constitution. In 1958, the chief of army took power and ruled until 1968. In 1969 a chief martial law administrator took power. Military rule and Pakistan, as formed in 1947, both ended in 1971. As a result of this constant change the administrative bodies in place could not fulfill their roles. Furthermore, the existence of a non-representative government [4] meant that decision making would represent the interests of the ruling elite. This had consequences for regional development, and thus education, in the country.
Pakistan post 1971
After the 1971 war the two wings of Pakistan separated. The western province became Pakistan – comprising of the four provinces Sindh, Punjab, Balochistan and N.W.F.P. The nature of politics and government in Pakistan remained similar to what it was before the 1971 war. Power has continued to alternate between civilian and military governments.#p#分页标题#e#
However, after 1971, more attention was given to socio-economic development in the country. Particularly during the period 1972-77, when the civilian government of Bhutto was in place, measures were taken to improve socio-economic conditions of the population. The successive military government continued this development, although, the nature of education changed under the Zia-ul-Haq government. Education was centralized (find reference) and Islamisation had a significant impact on educational policies. Until today, political motives continue to influence developmental projects in all fields, including education. Thus education indicators have to be analyzed in this context.
Most recently, the policies of the military government from 1999 – 2008 and the successive civilian government have impacted the state of education in Pakistan. For the past decade, primary concerns of both the military and civilian governments have been the war on terrorism. Consequently, socio-economic development and thus educational development has been of secondary importance.
Bangladesh post 1971
Bangladesh, since secession has seen frequent change in governments as with any newly formed state. Most of these governments have been civilian governments, with a period of military rule from 1975-1990. During this time military chiefs assumed power as Presidents (find reference). However, elections were conducted under these military presidents to establish government with popular vote.
Political turmoil in Bangladesh has been similar to that in Pakistan. This in itself prevents socio-economic development in any country due to constant disruptions in government (find reference). However, two significant problems that hindered development of infrastructure and social in the country were resolved. Firstly, the problem of division of resources between provinces and thus discrimination amongst regions no longer existed. The Bengali government’s resources would not have to be divided amongst provinces. The unified nature of Bangladesh prevents provincial disputes such as in Pakistan, making allocation of resources much easier.
Furthermore, Bengalis were not under-represented at the centre anymore. In fact, the government was primarily dominated by Bengalis, ensuring that political and economic objectives were geared towards the improvement of Bangladesh. Yet, development has been limited due to political conflicts.
In recent years the government’s concern for socio-economic development has increased. (find reference) The political system has undergone the initial stages of development and the welfare of the state is now given more importance than political power struggles. Economic and education policies are formed in this political context, and thus the socio-economic development of the state is linked to its political development.
Overview of educational policies
#p#分页标题#e#
Pre-1971 Pakistan
Educational development in Pakistan was handled by the various national education commissions and through the five-year plans. Political conflicts disrupted governments and thus developmental programs. Secondly, education was given less importance compared to economic development, as a strong base economic base had to be established to ensure long-run survival of the country (find reference). Lastly, the limited budget allocated to education had to be divided between East and West Pakistan [5] . Theoretically, allocation was based on the the size of the two provinces. Nonetheless, political biases filtered in to the allocation process. Also, there was a failure to account for the large population of East Pakistan. In 1947, 60% of population belonged to East Pakistan [6] ; and population growth rate of East Pakistan was higher than West Pakistan as depicted in Table X. Table XY futher shows that the proportion of school age children was higher in East Pakistan. These factors led to inadequate allocation of resources to the province, resulting in relatively less educational development compared to West Pakistan.
Post 1971 Pakistan
After partition educational planning in Pakistan was undertaken by the Planning Commission of Pakistan. The Planning Commission facilitates the Government to achieve its economic and social objectives of developing the resources of the country as rapidly as possible so as to promote the welfare of the people, provide adequate living standards, and social services, secure social justice and equality of opportunity to all and aim at the widest and most equitable distribution of national wealth [7] . It serves this purpose through formulation of five-year plans to provide the government with long-term targets for growth and development. These plans provide a vision for the government to follow by taking into account all socio-economic sectors that require attention. Budgets are formed on the basis of these plans. Implementation of the budget is then carried out by the Education Ministry.
From 1971 till today, education has been given less importance compared to other sectors of the economy. As a result growth in education has been limited. This is evident in the latest economic budget shown in the table below [8] .
The above figures provide a basis for comparison of current education expenditure between Pakistan and Bangladesh.
Post 1971 Bangladesh
Planning and implementation of education policies in Bangladesh was similar to Pakistan. Initial developmental planning was done by the Ministry of Education and Culture, until the National Education Commission was set up in 1987. Regardless of institutions in place, political turmoil has hindered the growth of education and thus economic growth in Bangladesh (find reference). In the initial period from 1971 to mid 1980’s little importance was given to education in the Federal budget (find reference). However, from the fourth year-plan (find plans) a greater percentage of the budget was allocated to education. The table XY shows the allocation of national budget to education in the past ten years. Compared to latest figures of allocation in Pakistan the percentage is much higher. This may be due to different priorities of the two countries. However it clearly depicts that partition has allowed the two countries to pursue their respective objectives as deemed necessary, something Bangladesh (previously East Pakistan) could not do before partition in 1971.#p#分页标题#e#
Add source/Table name
The above Graph X shows public spending on education as a percentage of total expenditure. Evidently, spending has been higher on Bangladesh as compared to Paksitan. This greater allocation of budget may be the reason for improved educational development as compared to Pakistan, and to the previous state of education in East Pakistan.
To further understand the state of disparity prior to 1971, education indicators will be used to compare quality and spread of education between Bangladesh and Pakistan, as well as to the quality and spread of education before 1971. Factors used to compare include literacy rate and enrolment by stage [9] . To maintain focus research is concentrated on primary and secondary education only.
Literacy rates
Literacy is a significant indicator of education because its rise is likely to have an impact, in the longer run, on other important indicators of welfare.
In 1951 the literacy rate for East Pakistan was 18.8% where as for West Pakitsan it was only 7.6%. However, by 1961 the literacy rate for East Pakistan rose only by 1.1% to 19.9% [10] which shows that even though it had a large proportion of the illiterate population, growth was limited over the years and the state of primary education and post primary education in East Pakistan remained very poor. The data in the tableY shows that the literacy rate in West Pakistan almost doubled. These statistics however, seem overstated because the government at that time defined literacy as the ability to read and write. As stated in the 1961 Consensus 14% of these people had attained no formal education and thus were unlikely to have achieved functional literacy [11] (citation: asadullah)
Furthermore, due to a wider age bracket i.e. five years old and above, the official figures contained a large number of individuals who dropped out of primary school after 1st grade. Therefore a fair comparison of literacy rates required the analysis of functional literacy rates among individuals aged 10 years and above. The revised figures (1962) were 10.1% for West Pakistan and 7.8% for East Pakistan. This shows that literacy advantage for East Pakistan in the official figures of the 1961 consensus was due to the fact that it hosted a larger number people with very low education attainment i.e. primary school going population.
Graph x depicts that rise in literacy rates over the past few decades in both Bangladesh and Pakistan. Rates have followed the trend indicated in pre-partition figures. Literacy rate in Bangladesh has remained higher than Pakistan. However, more important to note is that the trend in literacy growth has been similar to that of Pakistan. Comparatively, prior to partition literacy growth in West Pakistan was much higher than growth in the East. This indicates that partition led to greater allocation of resources, as depicted earlier in the figured regarding public spending in each country.#p#分页标题#e#
Enrollment by stage
In 1947, at the time of independence, 60% of Pakistanis lived in East Pakistan which meant that majority of the school going population resided there. Also as shown in the table yzx total population in East Pakistan grew at a higher rate in the following years. Given this difference in population growth it is evident that primary and secondary school enrollment was higher in East Pakistan compared to West Pakistan. In 1948, a total 2,021,702 children were enrolled in primary school compared to only 544,360 in the West. However, analysis of data of subsequent years’ shows that by 1969, primary enrollment in East Pakistan rose to 6,564,535 at an annual average growth rate of 10.7% in contrast to an average annual growth rate of 22.9% leading to a total of 3,166,799 children enrolled in primary schools in West Pakistan. Enrolment did not keep up with education growth, indicating a decline in overall education in the Eastern wing
Population growth rate.
Preprimary enrolment %
Education primary gross (%)
Enrolment in Secondary stage.
Graph A, B,C,D depict the trends of population growth and enrolment. Enrolment figured indicate the ratio of total enrollment, regardless of age, to the population of the age group that officially corresponds to the level of education shown. Preprimary education refers to the initial stage of organized instruction, designed primarily to introduce very young children to a school-type environment. Primary education provides children with basic reading, writing, and mathematics skills along with an elementary understanding of such subjects as history, geography, natural science, social science, art, and music. Secondary education completes the provision of basic education that began at the primary level, and aims at laying the foundations for lifelong learning and human development, by offering more subject- or skill-oriented instruction using more specialized teachers.
These graphs show trends in education enrolment in the past decades, particularly after partition in 1971. With the exception of pre-primary enrolment rates, both primary and secondary enrolment rates are much higher in Bangladesh than in Pakistan. In contrast, population growth rate has decreased in Bangladesh. Hence it can be concluded that growth increase in number of children has been greater than the growth in school going population resulting from population growth. The trend has been reversed, particularly in the recent years, as compared to pre-partition years. Before 1971, growth in population was higher in the East wing of Pakistan while, growth in enrolment was much lower than the Western wing. Evidently, secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan has had an impact on development of education, even though it took several decades for this development to start.
number of institutions
In 1948 the number of primary and secondary schools in Bangladesh were 29633 and 3481 whereas in Pakistan the number of primary and secondary schools were 8413 and 2958 respectively. By 1970 the number of primary and secondary schools in Bangladesh were 28,908 and 5,694 whereas in Pakistan the number of primary and secondary schools were 38,900 and 5,600. This shows that even though East Pakistan started off with favorable educational endowments by 1970 West Pakistan ended up with a higher number of primary schools. Even though West Pakistan had a poorer educational infrastructure in 1948, by 1970 it matched the number of secondary schools in East Pakistan.#p#分页标题#e#
Pakistan still exceeds in the number of primary and secondary institutions it has compared to Bangladesh. Tables XXXXXXXX below show that Bangladesh has a total of 82218 and 18756 primary and secondary schools and Pakistan has 140,157 and 68006 primary and secondary schools which is approximately 70% greater than Bangladesh.
Conclusion
A review of several resources had indicated the existence of disparity in primary and secondary education between East and West Pakistan before 1971. Most sources claimed that it was discrimination at the centre and political bias which led to this inequality. An in-depth study of statistical figured from the period 1947-1971 substantiated this claim.
Furthermore, analysis of recent trends has depicted that after partition growth in literacy on the whole, and enrolment in primary and secondary education has been much greater in Bangladesh as compared to Pakistan. Not only has absolute growth in Bangladesh been greater but also growth in enrolment with respect to population growth rate. Development of education is also given more importance in Bangladesh than in Pakistan, as highlighted in the respective allocation of public expenditure to education development.
Results from analysis of these two factors indicate that disparity certainly existed in the distribution of resources for the development of education between East and West Pakistan. Secession has led to greater allocation of resources to education, as considered necessary by the government of the country for the welfare of its people. However it must be noted that a decisive conclusion cannot be made on the basis of these two factors.
The limited nature of this research only allows for a provisional conclusion to be made on this issue. To comment more a comprehensive study has to be undertaken with respect to other indicators of educational development such as number of institutions, teaching staff, quality of education, survival rate in schools, as well as the state of higher education. Furthermore, statistics of before and after 1971 have to be studied in greater detail to give a clearer picture of the extent of disparity, so as to help conclude how much disparity has decreased or education in Bangladesh has improved compared to that in Pakistan. Lastly, every indicator has to be analyzed at different points in time in context of the political, social and economic conditions in that period.
Due to limited time and resources, this research is not as comprehensive as required. However, on the basis of the indicators studied it can be concluded that disparity in primary and secondary education existed; and post-secession from West Pakistan, the state of education in Bangladesh has improved.
在本文中，因为分裂的原因，孟加拉国和巴基斯坦的中小学教育状况已被巴基斯坦的教育发展所代替描述。这项研究通过识字率和入学率的结果表示，强调了孟加拉国的教育在1971年后的改进。对这些因素进行了研究，各自的政府提出关于经济和教育的决策。有关这两个国家目前统计数据的研究已被用于教育定论提出的假设达成分裂之前的差距，并在分裂后的基础上进行改进。
1947年，穆斯林教徒的独立性导致了一个穆斯林国家——巴基斯坦的形成，包括东孟加拉（东巴基斯坦），旁遮普省，信德省，俾路支省和西北边境的省[1]。领土的不连续性，文化差异和政治偏见是阻碍东方和西方融合为联邦一级的因素。因为两翼之间的这些因素，资源配置的结果是不公平的，它偏向于西巴基斯坦。冲突的继续发生并未能解决这些问题，同时还导致了东巴基斯坦于1971年脱离西巴基斯坦。
Documented To Depict The Development Of Education Economics Essay
In this paper, the state of primary and secondary education in Bangladesh and Pakistan has been documented to depict the development of education in Bangladesh since secession. This research highlights the improvement in education in Bangladesh post-1971, as indicated through literacy rates and enrolment in education. These factors have been studied with regard to economic and education policy decisions by the respective governments. A study of current statistics pertaining to both countries has been used to explore the proposed hypothesis to reach a final conclusion on regional disparity in education prior to partition, on the basis of improvement after partition.
Introduction:
In 1947, independence of the Muslims from Hindus led to the formation of a Muslim state, Pakistan; comprising of East Bengal (East Pakistan), Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan and NWFP [1] . Territorial discontinuity, cultural differences and political biases were an impediment to integration of the East and West at the Federal level. As a result of these factors resource allocation between the two wings was unequal that is biased in favor of West Pakistan. Conflicts continued to arise and failure to resolve them led to secession of East Pakistan from West Pakistan in 1971.
Inequitable distribution of resources affected all sectors of society in East Pakistan. Infrastructure development was limited and there was minimal improvement in social sectors. (Reference). Hence GDP per capita of East Pakistan was much less than GDP per capita of West Pakistan.
Research has been undertaken to study how far resource allocation was inequitable and how it affected different sectors of the economy and society up till 1971. Trend analyses of the state of different sectors of the economy from 1971 to recent times have also been done to prove or disprove theories regarding discrimination in resource allocation. Existence of disparity did not only affect the economy but social sectors, such as education in particular, as well. Various researches have been conducted to highlighting the growth in the Bengali economy after secession, attributing limited development prior to 1971 to disparity in resource allocation between East and West Pakistan. (Reference)#p#分页标题#e#
Limited efforts to improve education in a country also affect the growth of the economy. A study of growth of education and growth of the Bengali economy since 1971 would depict whether limited growth prior to this period could actually be attributed to resource contraints at the federal level. The objective of this study is to examine whether there existed systematic bias in the distribution of educational resources and facilities during 1947–1971 between East and West Pakistan.(cite asadullah). Hence, this research has examined the change in educational infrastructure of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and West Pakistan (now Pakistan) between 1971 and 2008 to determine the extent to which disparities limited the growth of primary and secondary education in East Pakistan.
A review of literature depicted that little comparative analysis has been done on this issue. An earlier study (cite asadullah) on existing disparity at the time of partition has been taken as the starting point for this study. A description of the economic policies of the two states [2] provides a political context for the analysis. A thorough review of particular policies regarding education in the respective countries depicts how these policies affected educational planning before and after 1971.
Several factors have been identified to compare inter-state differences in spread and quality of education from 1971 to 2008. These include expenditure on education; literacy rates; number of educational institutions at primary and secondary level; enrolment at each stage by gender; and teaching staff. A conclusion has been made on whether limited growth in education in East Pakistan was due to disparity in resource allocation based on the result of this analysis.
Review of literature:
Although past literature has focused on the question of economic disparity, relatively little is known about inequalities that existed between the two regions in other spheres such as education. A research on inter-regional differences in educational resources brought to surface that disparity existed, whether as a function of resources constraints or discrimination at the federal level. (cite asadullah) differences may be due to these factors or educational disparity may have resulted from inability to account for demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the two populations and deal with them accordingly. (cite asadullah, intro).
Since this research several researches and reports have been compiled on the educational systems of Pakistan and Bangladesh by private organizations and governments. Statistical reports by the National Educational Management Information System (NEMIS, Pakistan), and Bangladesh Bureau of Education Information and Statistics (BANBEIS) clearly indicate the state of education in the two countries, providing a basis for comparison. The National education Consensus 2005/06 was the first such survey in the history of Pakistan, which provides an in-depth outlook of the education system covering all types of educational institutions. Data from the 2007 publication of Pakistan Education Statistics 2005-2006 was also studied, to ensure that this paper depicts the latest available statistical information.#p#分页标题#e#
Other studies by organizations like the United Nations and individuals on the current state of education, and comparisons on the education system before partition (Educational disparity in East and West Pakistan, 1947-71: Was East Pakistan discriminated against?, Mohammed Niaz Asadullah, 2006) give a theoretical basis for comparison of education in the concerned regions in an objective manner. A review of these sources indicates that disparities existed and differences in educational indicators continue to exist. Furthermore, a review of books about East and West Pakistan before and after separation gives the political context in which to analyze these educational disparities.
Methodology:
This research is primarily based on secondary sources. Sources include past and current statistics from consensus’ conducted by the concerned governments, books by authors from various disciplines and nationalities, newspaper articles, other research papers, research journals and other relevant official documents that can be accessed. The information is used to evaluate education indicators and to draw comparisons, to help benchmark the system's characteristics. This paper makes extensive use of tables and charts to convey information and help analyze the particular aspects of education under review. Deductive analysis of statistics is used for a comparative study of the state of education in the two regions and give conclusions. In the light of these and other sources the research questions are answered through exploration and analysis of the situation in context of the political and economic conditions prevalent at that time.
Operational Definitions
Education: Formal education imparted by a registered school, private or public.
Literacy:
Literacy in Pakistan: "The ability to read, write and calculate simple symbols, digits, words, sentences, texts, with understanding at normal speed, and tackle everyday life problems related to citizenship, gender sensitivity, health, ethics and technical know-how to improve life and ultimately the society.” The definition refers to Literacy and Numeracy Skills components. Add footnote: ( national curriculum for literacy 2007)
Literacy in Bangladesh: The basic learning needs of the people comprise both essential learning tools and the basic learning content required to be able to survive, to develop their full capacities, to live and to work in dignity, to participate fully in development, to improve the quality of their lives, to make informed decisions and to continue learning ( http://www.iiz-dvv.de/index.php?article_id=340&clang=1 - last accessed on 11th January 2011)
Primary Education: School education from Nursery to Grade 6
Secondary Education: School education from Grade 7-12
Disparity: Differences in the availability and quality of education due to unequal resource allocation among the two regions, i.e. East Pakistan and West Pakistan.#p#分页标题#e#
Discrimination: Unfair treatment of a certain region due to cultural or political biases.
Background: Economic policies
Pre-1971
Prior to division in 1971, Pakistan was governed under a federal structure of government. Commerce, foreign affairs and defence were controlled by the central government while social infrastructure was under respective provincial governments. However, due to the power struggles and inconsistent government structures(find reference) there was no clear distinction in planning, implementation and monitoring of development projects related to social infrastructure. This was undertaken by both the centre and provincial governments. The extent of Central Government intervention varied over time with changes in the political landscape of the country. (Sadeque, 1957)(find reference) This had consequences for development of provinces [3] .
Firstly, it must be noted that Central government was set up in West Pakistan, primarily because the ruling elite migrated to the western wing. To further understand the nature of development in East and West Pakistan representation of provinces at the centre must be understood. From 1947-54, central government was dominated by the ruling elite – Muhajirs and Punjabis – who controlled the bureaucratic apparatus and armed forces. Other ethnic groups such as the Balochis, Sindhis, Pathans had limited representation at the centre. The Bengalis were also under-represented.
In 1955 the ‘One Unit’ policy was introduced (find reference). To resolve issues of representation with East Pakistan, the four provinces of the Western Wing were merged into one administrative unit known as West Pakistan. This only served to strengthen the position of the ruling elite over ethnic groups in the western province through provincial government, and over East Pakistan through the Central government.
Within the bounds of this political structure the Pakistani government went through several transitions between 1947 and 1971. There was a constant struggle between the civilian government, feudal lords and the Pakistani army. Control of government oscillated between these three parties. From 1947-56 there was no constitution in place. A civilian government operated for two years under the 1956 Constitution. In 1958, the chief of army took power and ruled until 1968. In 1969 a chief martial law administrator took power. Military rule and Pakistan, as formed in 1947, both ended in 1971. As a result of this constant change the administrative bodies in place could not fulfill their roles. Furthermore, the existence of a non-representative government [4] meant that decision making would represent the interests of the ruling elite. This had consequences for regional development, and thus education, in the country.
Pakistan post 1971
After the 1971 war the two wings of Pakistan separated. The western province became Pakistan – comprising of the four provinces Sindh, Punjab, Balochistan and N.W.F.P. The nature of politics and government in Pakistan remained similar to what it was before the 1971 war. Power has continued to alternate between civilian and military governments.#p#分页标题#e#
However, after 1971, more attention was given to socio-economic development in the country. Particularly during the period 1972-77, when the civilian government of Bhutto was in place, measures were taken to improve socio-economic conditions of the population. The successive military government continued this development, although, the nature of education changed under the Zia-ul-Haq government. Education was centralized (find reference) and Islamisation had a significant impact on educational policies. Until today, political motives continue to influence developmental projects in all fields, including education. Thus education indicators have to be analyzed in this context.
Most recently, the policies of the military government from 1999 – 2008 and the successive civilian government have impacted the state of education in Pakistan. For the past decade, primary concerns of both the military and civilian governments have been the war on terrorism. Consequently, socio-economic development and thus educational development has been of secondary importance.
Bangladesh post 1971
Bangladesh, since secession has seen frequent change in governments as with any newly formed state. Most of these governments have been civilian governments, with a period of military rule from 1975-1990. During this time military chiefs assumed power as Presidents (find reference). However, elections were conducted under these military presidents to establish government with popular vote.
Political turmoil in Bangladesh has been similar to that in Pakistan. This in itself prevents socio-economic development in any country due to constant disruptions in government (find reference). However, two significant problems that hindered development of infrastructure and social in the country were resolved. Firstly, the problem of division of resources between provinces and thus discrimination amongst regions no longer existed. The Bengali government’s resources would not have to be divided amongst provinces. The unified nature of Bangladesh prevents provincial disputes such as in Pakistan, making allocation of resources much easier.
Furthermore, Bengalis were not under-represented at the centre anymore. In fact, the government was primarily dominated by Bengalis, ensuring that political and economic objectives were geared towards the improvement of Bangladesh. Yet, development has been limited due to political conflicts.
In recent years the government’s concern for socio-economic development has increased. (find reference) The political system has undergone the initial stages of development and the welfare of the state is now given more importance than political power struggles. Economic and education policies are formed in this political context, and thus the socio-economic development of the state is linked to its political development.
Overview of educational policies
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Pre-1971 Pakistan
Educational development in Pakistan was handled by the various national education commissions and through the five-year plans. Political conflicts disrupted governments and thus developmental programs. Secondly, education was given less importance compared to economic development, as a strong base economic base had to be established to ensure long-run survival of the country (find reference). Lastly, the limited budget allocated to education had to be divided between East and West Pakistan [5] . Theoretically, allocation was based on the the size of the two provinces. Nonetheless, political biases filtered in to the allocation process. Also, there was a failure to account for the large population of East Pakistan. In 1947, 60% of population belonged to East Pakistan [6] ; and population growth rate of East Pakistan was higher than West Pakistan as depicted in Table X. Table XY futher shows that the proportion of school age children was higher in East Pakistan. These factors led to inadequate allocation of resources to the province, resulting in relatively less educational development compared to West Pakistan.
Post 1971 Pakistan
After partition educational planning in Pakistan was undertaken by the Planning Commission of Pakistan. The Planning Commission facilitates the Government to achieve its economic and social objectives of developing the resources of the country as rapidly as possible so as to promote the welfare of the people, provide adequate living standards, and social services, secure social justice and equality of opportunity to all and aim at the widest and most equitable distribution of national wealth [7] . It serves this purpose through formulation of five-year plans to provide the government with long-term targets for growth and development. These plans provide a vision for the government to follow by taking into account all socio-economic sectors that require attention. Budgets are formed on the basis of these plans. Implementation of the budget is then carried out by the Education Ministry.
From 1971 till today, education has been given less importance compared to other sectors of the economy. As a result growth in education has been limited. This is evident in the latest economic budget shown in the table below [8] .
The above figures provide a basis for comparison of current education expenditure between Pakistan and Bangladesh.
Post 1971 Bangladesh
Planning and implementation of education policies in Bangladesh was similar to Pakistan. Initial developmental planning was done by the Ministry of Education and Culture, until the National Education Commission was set up in 1987. Regardless of institutions in place, political turmoil has hindered the growth of education and thus economic growth in Bangladesh (find reference). In the initial period from 1971 to mid 1980’s little importance was given to education in the Federal budget (find reference). However, from the fourth year-plan (find plans) a greater percentage of the budget was allocated to education. The table XY shows the allocation of national budget to education in the past ten years. Compared to latest figures of allocation in Pakistan the percentage is much higher. This may be due to different priorities of the two countries. However it clearly depicts that partition has allowed the two countries to pursue their respective objectives as deemed necessary, something Bangladesh (previously East Pakistan) could not do before partition in 1971.#p#分页标题#e#
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The above Graph X shows public spending on education as a percentage of total expenditure. Evidently, spending has been higher on Bangladesh as compared to Paksitan. This greater allocation of budget may be the reason for improved educational development as compared to Pakistan, and to the previous state of education in East Pakistan.
To further understand the state of disparity prior to 1971, education indicators will be used to compare quality and spread of education between Bangladesh and Pakistan, as well as to the quality and spread of education before 1971. Factors used to compare include literacy rate and enrolment by stage [9] . To maintain focus research is concentrated on primary and secondary education only.
Literacy rates
Literacy is a significant indicator of education because its rise is likely to have an impact, in the longer run, on other important indicators of welfare.
In 1951 the literacy rate for East Pakistan was 18.8% where as for West Pakitsan it was only 7.6%. However, by 1961 the literacy rate for East Pakistan rose only by 1.1% to 19.9% [10] which shows that even though it had a large proportion of the illiterate population, growth was limited over the years and the state of primary education and post primary education in East Pakistan remained very poor. The data in the tableY shows that the literacy rate in West Pakistan almost doubled. These statistics however, seem overstated because the government at that time defined literacy as the ability to read and write. As stated in the 1961 Consensus 14% of these people had attained no formal education and thus were unlikely to have achieved functional literacy [11] (citation: asadullah)
Furthermore, due to a wider age bracket i.e. five years old and above, the official figures contained a large number of individuals who dropped out of primary school after 1st grade. Therefore a fair comparison of literacy rates required the analysis of functional literacy rates among individuals aged 10 years and above. The revised figures (1962) were 10.1% for West Pakistan and 7.8% for East Pakistan. This shows that literacy advantage for East Pakistan in the official figures of the 1961 consensus was due to the fact that it hosted a larger number people with very low education attainment i.e. primary school going population.
Graph x depicts that rise in literacy rates over the past few decades in both Bangladesh and Pakistan. Rates have followed the trend indicated in pre-partition figures. Literacy rate in Bangladesh has remained higher than Pakistan. However, more important to note is that the trend in literacy growth has been similar to that of Pakistan. Comparatively, prior to partition literacy growth in West Pakistan was much higher than growth in the East. This indicates that partition led to greater allocation of resources, as depicted earlier in the figured regarding public spending in each country.#p#分页标题#e#
Enrollment by stage
In 1947, at the time of independence, 60% of Pakistanis lived in East Pakistan which meant that majority of the school going population resided there. Also as shown in the table yzx total population in East Pakistan grew at a higher rate in the following years. Given this difference in population growth it is evident that primary and secondary school enrollment was higher in East Pakistan compared to West Pakistan. In 1948, a total 2,021,702 children were enrolled in primary school compared to only 544,360 in the West. However, analysis of data of subsequent years’ shows that by 1969, primary enrollment in East Pakistan rose to 6,564,535 at an annual average growth rate of 10.7% in contrast to an average annual growth rate of 22.9% leading to a total of 3,166,799 children enrolled in primary schools in West Pakistan. Enrolment did not keep up with education growth, indicating a decline in overall education in the Eastern wing
Population growth rate.
Preprimary enrolment %
Education primary gross (%)
Enrolment in Secondary stage.
Graph A, B,C,D depict the trends of population growth and enrolment. Enrolment figured indicate the ratio of total enrollment, regardless of age, to the population of the age group that officially corresponds to the level of education shown. Preprimary education refers to the initial stage of organized instruction, designed primarily to introduce very young children to a school-type environment. Primary education provides children with basic reading, writing, and mathematics skills along with an elementary understanding of such subjects as history, geography, natural science, social science, art, and music. Secondary education completes the provision of basic education that began at the primary level, and aims at laying the foundations for lifelong learning and human development, by offering more subject- or skill-oriented instruction using more specialized teachers.
These graphs show trends in education enrolment in the past decades, particularly after partition in 1971. With the exception of pre-primary enrolment rates, both primary and secondary enrolment rates are much higher in Bangladesh than in Pakistan. In contrast, population growth rate has decreased in Bangladesh. Hence it can be concluded that growth increase in number of children has been greater than the growth in school going population resulting from population growth. The trend has been reversed, particularly in the recent years, as compared to pre-partition years. Before 1971, growth in population was higher in the East wing of Pakistan while, growth in enrolment was much lower than the Western wing. Evidently, secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan has had an impact on development of education, even though it took several decades for this development to start.
number of institutions
In 1948 the number of primary and secondary schools in Bangladesh were 29633 and 3481 whereas in Pakistan the number of primary and secondary schools were 8413 and 2958 respectively. By 1970 the number of primary and secondary schools in Bangladesh were 28,908 and 5,694 whereas in Pakistan the number of primary and secondary schools were 38,900 and 5,600. This shows that even though East Pakistan started off with favorable educational endowments by 1970 West Pakistan ended up with a higher number of primary schools. Even though West Pakistan had a poorer educational infrastructure in 1948, by 1970 it matched the number of secondary schools in East Pakistan.#p#分页标题#e#
Pakistan still exceeds in the number of primary and secondary institutions it has compared to Bangladesh. Tables XXXXXXXX below show that Bangladesh has a total of 82218 and 18756 primary and secondary schools and Pakistan has 140,157 and 68006 primary and secondary schools which is approximately 70% greater than Bangladesh.
Conclusion
A review of several resources had indicated the existence of disparity in primary and secondary education between East and West Pakistan before 1971. Most sources claimed that it was discrimination at the centre and political bias which led to this inequality. An in-depth study of statistical figured from the period 1947-1971 substantiated this claim.
Furthermore, analysis of recent trends has depicted that after partition growth in literacy on the whole, and enrolment in primary and secondary education has been much greater in Bangladesh as compared to Pakistan. Not only has absolute growth in Bangladesh been greater but also growth in enrolment with respect to population growth rate. Development of education is also given more importance in Bangladesh than in Pakistan, as highlighted in the respective allocation of public expenditure to education development.
Results from analysis of these two factors indicate that disparity certainly existed in the distribution of resources for the development of education between East and West Pakistan. Secession has led to greater allocation of resources to education, as considered necessary by the government of the country for the welfare of its people. However it must be noted that a decisive conclusion cannot be made on the basis of these two factors.
The limited nature of this research only allows for a provisional conclusion to be made on this issue. To comment more a comprehensive study has to be undertaken with respect to other indicators of educational development such as number of institutions, teaching staff, quality of education, survival rate in schools, as well as the state of higher education. Furthermore, statistics of before and after 1971 have to be studied in greater detail to give a clearer picture of the extent of disparity, so as to help conclude how much disparity has decreased or education in Bangladesh has improved compared to that in Pakistan. Lastly, every indicator has to be analyzed at different points in time in context of the political, social and economic conditions in that period.
Due to limited time and resources, this research is not as comprehensive as required. However, on the basis of the indicators studied it can be concluded that disparity in primary and secondary education existed; and post-secession from West Pakistan, the state of education in Bangladesh has improved.
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