组织战略中的信息系统计划：Strategic Information Systems Plan in an Organization

1 Introduction引言

信息系统已成为现代化的代名词，并且信息系统为今天在全球市场组织的新竞争中的带来了全新的动力。一个信息系统（IS）是数据记录，人力资源和活动的系统，并且能够处理在一个组织中，无论是手工流程和自动化流程中的数据和信息的系统。从80年代到90年代，出现了一个共识，那就是战略发展离不开信息系统的主导。因此，战略信息系统规划成为一个重要的管理方法。

Information system has emerged as homonymous of modernization and a powerful elements of new competitiveness for today’s organization in the global market. An Information System (IS) is a system of data records, human resource and activities that dispose the data and information in an organization, both manual processes and automated processes. From 80’s to 90’s, there has been a common growing realization of the need to make information systems of strategic significant to organization. Thus, strategic information systems planning became an important management cycle. In many organization surveys, SISP has often been considered as the most serious challenge facing IS managers (Pavri and Ang, 1995, Beath and Orlikowski, 1994;).

至于任何其他管理系统，诸如信息系统规划等，最初发源于某些组织的特殊需要。为了有效的进行管理，任何类型的管理系统都是基于计算机的系统的开发出来的 - 无论是在事务处理级别或在更复杂的信息和支持等问题上。

As for any other management system, information systems planning, begins with the identification of certain organization needs. In order to be effective, development of any type of computer-based system should be a response to need--whether at the transaction processing level or at the more complex information and support systems levels. Such planning for information systems is much like strategic planning in management. Objectives, priorities, and authorization for information systems projects need to be formalized. The information systems development plan should identify specific projects slated for the future, priorities for each project and for resources, general procedures, and constraints for each application. The plan must be specific enough to enable understanding of each application and to know where it stands in the order of improvement. Also the plan should be flexible so that priorities can be adjusted if necessary. King (King, 1995) in his recent article has argued that a strategic capability architecture-a flexible and continuously improving infrastructure of organizational capabilities–is the first basis for a company's sustainable competitive advantage. He has emphasized the need for continuously updating and improving the strategic capabilities architecture.

Thus, it is believed that strategic information system plan is an analysis of organization’s information and processes using business information models together with the evaluation of risk, current needs and requirements. The result is an operational and effective plan showing the desired course of events necessary to pack up information and needs with the future orientation of the company (Battaglia, 1991).#p#分页标题#e#
 

According to the role of information system in organization, this paper described the information system development histroy and classical common types according to reseache data. It shows how IS is an indispensable component in the implementation of a strategic plan. Then next parts reviewed the existing methodologies for strategic information system planning hoping to improve the effectiveness of strategic planning for the information-based organizations and improving the development of information system in future organization management.

 

2 The histroy and types of information system高等教育的历史和信息系统的类型

The concept of information systems has evolved from electronic accounting machines speeding paperwork and bureaucracy since the 1950, to providing general information support in functional areas through the generation of routine performance reports in the 1960's. In the 1970's and beginning of the 80's systems that provided customized information to improve decision making emerged(DSS and ESS). From the mid-eighties, the role of information systems has taken a differ role. Computing power and networks have placed information systems at the centre of the business. Nowadays, the concept of Strategic Information Systems has gained common admitment, emphasizing on the fact that information is a strategic resource for an organization.

However, at the beginning, information system is always used erroneously as a agent for computer-based information systems, which is only the Information technologies component of an Information System since the primary function in organization. The computer-based information systems are only one of study for Information technologies(IT). In today`s business environment, the Information technologies should hardly be treated apart from the bigger Information System that they are always involved in. Because the bigger Information System in today support different types of decisions at different levels of the organizational hierarchy in processing the data and information rather than the information technologies only. Generally speaking, in an organization of each functional department, four levels of organizational hierarchy can be identified: operational level, knowledge level, management level and strategic level. Each of these levels is related with different types of information systems.
 

In order to fully understand the operation of information system in a given organization, it must have enough knowledge that there are six major types related to the serving level: Transaction Processing Systems (TPS), Knowledge Work Systems (KWS), Office Automation Systems (OAS), Management Information Systems (MIS), Decision Support Systems (DSS), Executive Support Systems (ESS).
 

Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) record daily routine transactions such as sales orders from customers, or bank deposits and withdrawals. They are vital for an organization, because they gather all the input necessary for other types of systems. Knowledge Work Systems (KWS) support highly skilled knowledge workers in the creation and integration of new knowledge into the company. Office Automation Systems (OAS) support general office work for handling and managing documents and facilitating communication. Text and image processing systems evolved from word processors to desktop publishing, enabling the creation of professional documents with graphics and special layout features. Management Information Systems (MIS) generate information for monitoring performance (e.g. productivity information) and maintaining coordination (e.g. between purchasing and accounts payable). MIS extract, process and summarize data from the TPS and provide periodic (weekly, monthly, quarterly) reports to managers. Decision Support Systems (DSS) support analytical work in semi-structured or unstructured situations. Executive Support Systems (ESS) or Executive Information Systems (EIS) provide a generalized computing and communication environment to senior managers to support strategic decisions.#p#分页标题#e#
 

These types of information systems lie in organizations. Not all organizations have all of the types described above. Many organizations must be sure that do not confuse strategic information systems with strategic-level systems like ESS. These types are not exist along, they usually relates with each other. It means that Strategic information systems can be at any organization management level. They are systems that fundamentally change the organization itself. So from this perspective, each of the six types of systems (TPS, KWS, OAS, MIS, DSS and ESS) can be considered as any strategic information systems. the impact of strategic information system could  transform the business processes, goals, values and external relations of the organiztion to gain competitive advantage. In fact, strategic information systems can completely change the very nature of business orperation process.

There is a intereting phenomena that information systems is change so rapidly that the characteristic of these types of information system are relating to other types (e.g. MIS having many of the features of ESS). System features transfer and new types of information emerge. However, the identification of information systems about these six types is practical and competitive, because every type of information system embed certain identity that are according to particular business environment.

As a result, information managers in an organization should have well konwledge of these types and implications study while deciding strategic plan of information system. Meanwhile, they need to know how to use and operate information system plan in today's networked business and global markets. Since in this dynamic environment, they will rely on interconnected networks of information systems for end user cooperation, including communications and internet among end user work groups and teams, and enterprisewide computing, including communications and information processing for business operations, managerial decision making, and strategic advantage.

 

The application in organization management of information systems is about 37 years old, it usually relates to accounting, finance and mangement field and so on. This age definition is based on the first formal academic degree program in management information systems at the University of Minnesota in 1968. This program was begun 14 years after the first business use of electronic computers and after the explosive growth of business computer use. There was, by that date, the beginning of a new business function to develop, implement, and manage information systems in organizations. In the same year, a new society for information system institution was formed, the Society for Information Management. Over the years of development, the information system have occupied a important role in organization strategy planning. Now, the field of the information systems management is the use of information and communication technology to offer work systems, business process and deliver information and communication services in a given organizations. It is very differentiated from computer science only. Since information system mostly emphasis on the application of the technology in an organizations rather than the development of algorithms, operating systems, system software, etc. Although information system as an academic discipline within every university may be in different schools, a common practical goal is within business level. There are maybe some problems with this placement, but it already brought benefits into organization through the way of compelling synergies with the other organization management disciplines.#p#分页标题#e#

 

Thanks for the popular application of computers program and internet service, the information system have provide an organization more competitive advantages, managing global corporations, and providing useful products and services to both organization and customers. One of the most important is that information system plays nowadays is that of different information provider. This is particular true in businesses and organization management. Understanding how computers perform as information system will make organization more competitive in today`s global market. For modern international organization, Information system is a collection of people, procedures, software, hardware, and data information. Information systems do not just keep track of transactions and day-to-day business operations, they also support the flow of information within organization. Thus, information flows both vertically and horizontally according to organizational structure. Generally, there are five functions for information system application in an organization. (1) Accounting: keeps tracks of all financial activity; (2) Marketing: handles adverting, promotion, and sales supervisor; (3) Production: makes products; (4) Human resource: selection and recruitment new employees, establish evaluation and compensation program;  (5) Research: conducts basic research and relates new products development.
 

As a result, there are six types mentioned above of information system identidied according to the different function or department in an given organization. Information Systems knowledge is the main technology and management method about the strategy of influencing the organization goal, value, operational tactic and marketing planning. It emphasizes the digital integration of the firm through enterprise applications(management of the supply chain, customer relationships, enterprise systems, and knowledge)by using approach of relating to strategic information system including management, Organization and Technology.
 

3 Methodologies for Strategic Information Systems Planning战略信息系统规划的方法

The introduction of strategic information system into organizational business as a new management blood while many organization employ the information technologies into their office and the use of internet that make the information easily accessed by it. In modern informatin era, the access to latest and more information means more understanding the business advance and competitive advantages. It is also the meaning that strategic planning for information systems is essential to an organisational success, especially in times of increasingly rapid change. Over the long term, any organisation will get the information systems it deserves, according to the approach adopted to the use and management of IS/IT. To obtain the whole range of benefits available from IS/IT and avoid the potential deficiency, every organisation must establish the strategic information system planning for the future development. Because the way of business is changing rapid and the important role of information system become more and more essential for competitive strategies, a manager must introduces more information and techniques to aid in developing and implementing strategies to enable management to identify what needs to be done and how best to do it. Then a detail and practical and feasible strategy planning for information system has the strong need to the future development of organization.#p#分页标题#e#

However, strategic Information Systems Planning in modern complex  information era is not an easy task especially such a process is deeply embedded in business processes. These systems need to cater to the strategic demands of organizations, i.e., serving the business goals and creating competitive advantage as well as meeting their data processing and MIS needs. The key point here is that organizations have to plan for information systems not merely as tools for cutting costs but as means to adding value. Within information systems (IS) literature, a considerable amount of research has been devoted to the development of frameworks and methodologies for conducting strategic planning.

 

The concept of value chain is considered at length by Michael Porter(1984). According to his idea, ‘every firm is a collection of activities that are performed to design, produce, market, deliver, and support its product. All these activities can be represented using a value chain.’ Porter goes on to explain that information system  is one of the major support activities for the organizational value chain. “Information systems is particularly pervasive in the value chain, since every value activity creates and uses information. .. The recent, rapid technological change in information systems is having a profound impact on competition and competitive advantage because of the common role of information in the value chain. Change in the way office functions can be performed is one of the most important types of technological trends occurring today for many firms, though few are devoting substantial resources to it. A firm that can discover a better technology for performing an activity than its competitors thus gains competitive advantage” (Porter, 1985). A typical value chain is summarized in the figure 2.

 

Critical success factors analysis can be considered to be both an impact as well as an alignment methodology. Critical Success Factors (CSF) in the context of strategic information system planning are used for interpreting more clearly the objectives, tactics, and operational activities in terms of key information needs of an organization and its managers and strengths and weaknesses of the organization’s existing systems. Rockart (1979) defines critical success factors as being ‘for any business the limited number of areas in which results, if they are satisfactory, will ensure successful competitive performance for the organization.’ CSFs can exist at a number of levels i.e., industry, organizational, business unit, or manager’s. CSFs at a lower level are derived from those at the preceding higher level. The CSF approach introduces information technology into the initial stages of the planning process and helps provide a realistic assessment of the IT’s contribution to the organization. They represent the few key areas where things must go right for the business to flourish. Consequently, critical success factors are areas of activity that should receive constant and careful attention from management.#p#分页标题#e#

Rockart originally developed the CSF approach as a means to understanding the information needs of CEOs. The approach has subsequently been applied to the enterprise as a whole and has been extended into a broader planning methodology. It has been made the basis of many consulting practices and has achieved major results where it has been used well.

1 Business Systems Planning (BSP) 信息系统计划

This methodology, developed by IBM, combines top down planning with bottom up implementation. The methodology focuses on business processes which in turn are derived from an organization’s business mission, objectives and goals. Business processes are analyzed to determine data needs and, then, data classes. Similar data classes are combined to develop databases. The final BSP plan describes an overall information systems architecture as well as installation schedule of individual systems.

2 Strategic Systems Planning (SSP) 战略系统规划

Also known as PRO planner and developed by Robert Holland, this methodology is similar to BSP. A business functional model is defined by analyzing major functional areas of a business. A data architecture is derived from the business function model by combining information requirements into generic data entities and subject databases. New systems and their implementation schedules are derived from this architecture. This architecture is then used to identify new systems and their implementation schedule. Although steps in the SSP procedure are similar to those in the BSP, a major difference between SSP and BSP is SSP’s automated handling of the data collected during the SISP process. Software produces reports in a wide range of formats and with various levels of detail. Affinity reports show the frequencies of accesses to data and clustering reports give guidance for database design. Users are guided through menus for on-line data collection and maintenance. The software also provides a data dictionary interface for sharing SSP data with an existing data dictionary or other automated design tools. Steps in the SSP procedure are shown in figure 5. In addition to SSP, Holland System’s Corporation also offers two other methodologies - one for guiding the information system architecture and another for developing data structures for modules from the SISP study. The strengths and weaknesses of BSP apply to SSP as well.

3 Information Engineering (IE) 信息工程（IE）

This methodology was developed by James Martin (1982) and provides techniques for building enterprise, data and process models. Theses models combine to form a comprehensive knowledge base which is used to create and maintain information systems. Basic philosophy underlying this technique is the use of structured techniques in all the tasks relating to planning, analysis, design and construction of enterprise wide information systems. Such structured techniques are expected to result in well integrated information systems. IE relies on an information systems pyramid for an enterprise.#p#分页标题#e#
 

A number of these methodologies information system managers in planning strategies(King and Teo, 1997); others help them find opportunities for competitive advantage(Porter & Millar, 1985); still others aid them analyse internal operation method and patterns of data process for the organization (Hatten M.L. and Flatten, 1997). Largely due to this focus on methodology development and description, a common trend exists relating with the information system planning to orperate the process of strategy planning by choice of organization situation(Lederer & Sethi, 1988). From the previous studies, this paper showed a collection of these methodologies to illuminate the process of information system planning.

 

4 Conclusion结论

Information System (IS) has developed about the last thirty years. Strategic Information System Planning (SISP) has become an increasingly important management analysis for both college experts and practitioners(Earl 1993, Mentzas 1997). Over the past ten years, SISP has consistently remained among the top ten hot topic(Moskowitz 1986). Organizations are constructed by taking into account the information system as an important tool for the future development strategy and the goals and aims of the most senior levels of management.

In this paper, it take a show of understanding, value and uses of information system formulation and different types of information system. It is admitted that the concepts and terms of information system are significant for modern global organization. Especially, the information system in which we live in today is required for managers to be equipped with an understanding of the ways in which they can effectively utilize information technologies as a tool. Thus in the remaining part of this paper, we reviewed the methods for extensively used or representative five information planning methodologies. Maybe for some organizations, these methodologies are enough to practice the infromation system planning. But for some other organizations, it believed that some kinds of new methodologies or some modifies are necessary while planning the information system strategy.

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