Literature Review写作格式：Literature Review of Data, Information, Knowledge and Wisdom
Literature Review写作格式-数据、信息、知识和智慧的文献综述。本文是一篇留学生Literature Review范文，主要内容是讲述知识作为一种资源给经济学家造成了巨大的误解，因为与实物商品不同，知识是唯一一种在使用时增加回报的资源，而不是随着时间的推移而减少或减少。知识的产生成本可能很高，但传播成本很低。Massa，S.和Testa，S.认为，组织和全国经济的成功决定因素越来越取决于其收集和利用知识的效率。根据Malhotra，Y.的观点，知识已成为关键生产要素；尽管货币账户仍以传统生产要素（包括建筑和机械）为主。知识流向最需要的地方的想法是关键点，它不应该只从上到下流动，而是在组织中以各种方式流动。Davidson，C.&Voss，P.，Lin，L.&Kwok，L.声称知识不再是力量的来源；知识共享在知识经济中至关重要，但Kakabadse，N.等人认为知识本身就是力量。知识的创造和编纂不一定会导致绩效改进或价值创造。只有在组织中始终分配知识并将其联系到需要的地方时，才能产生价值。组织中只有聪明人是不够的。下面请一起来看一下这篇Literature Review写作范文的全部内容。
Why Knowledge management is so important? 为什么知识管理如此重要？
Knowledge as a resource causes huge misunderstanding for economists, because unlike the physical commodities, it is the only resource which increased returns as it is used rather than reduced or diminished over time (Clarke, T. 2001). Knowledge may be costly to generate but there is modest cost to diffusion. Massa, S. & Testa, S. (2008) believed that the determinants of success of organizations, and nationwide economies as a total, is ever more dependent upon their efficiency in assembling and utilizing knowledge. Accordingly to Malhotra, Y. (2000) knowledge has turn into a key production factor; though the monetary accounts are still leading by conventional factors of production, including buildings and machinery. The idea of knowledge flowing to where it is most needed is the critical point and it should not flow only from the top down, but flow in all ways in an organization, (Davenport, T. & Prusak, L. 2000). Davidson, C. & Voss, P. (2004), Lin, L. & Kwok, L. (2006) claimed that knowledge is no longer a source of power; it is knowledge sharing that counts in the knowledge economy but author like Kakabadse, N. et al., (2003), viewed knowledge itself is power. Creation and codification of knowledge do not necessarily lead to performance improvement or value creation. Value is generated only when knowledge is allocated all the way through in an organization and linked where it is needed (Chena, C & Huang, J. 2007). It is not sufficient to have smart people in the organization. Instead, the key is to create systems that tap into the knowledge, experiences, and creativity of your staff, your customers, your suppliers, and even your competitors. Knowledge strategy needs to be concerned with the quality of information, not the quantity; and with the timeliness of information delivery, not its speed. Smart systems are excellent but smart people are superior. Despres, C. & Chauvel, D. (1999) identified that knowledge management occurs on three ends:
相反，关键是创建能够利用员工、客户、供应商甚至竞争对手的知识、经验和创造力的系统。知识战略需要关注信息的质量，而不是数量；信息传递的及时性，而不是速度。智能系统很优秀，但聪明人更优秀。Despres，C.和Chauvel，D.指出，知识管理发生在三个方面：
the individual,个人
the team and 团队
the organizational. 以及组织
Framework for knowledge approaches 知识方法框架
Knowledge management is linked to diverse business fields and it has always been entrenched in the individual behavior. It is not all about creating an index or register that detains the whole thing that anyone ever knew. Collison, C. & Parcell, G. (2004) suggested that it is about maintaining track of those who know the procedure, techniques and fostering the culture and technology that will get them talking. It is challenging to understand the nature of knowledge and the way it is managed. Also the management approaches towards knowledge management is varied. Knowledge can be created from re-describing and re-labeling the past knowledge, it also created from connecting people (the relationships) and connecting technologies (networks). This might be flexible social or stiff technical networks. These discussions vibrate with the managerial paradox of developing organizational performance via rigid or free control systems and this was interpreted in the following model adopted from Armistead, C. & Meakins, M. (2002) for describing four approaches to knowledge management stand on whether it is in an organizational or an individual context, and whether knowledge management is imposed or empowered by managerial approaches.
知识管理与不同的业务领域联系在一起，它始终植根于个人行为中。这并不是创建一个索引或寄存器来保存任何人都知道的全部内容。Collison，C.和Parcell，G.建议，这是关于保持对那些了解程序、技术的人的跟踪，并培养让他们说话的文化和技术。理解知识的本质及其管理方式是一项挑战。知识管理的管理方法也多种多样。知识可以通过重新描述和标记过去的知识来创造，也可以通过连接人（关系）和连接技术（网络）来创造。这可能是灵活的社交网络或僵硬的技术网络。这些讨论与通过刚性或自由控制系统发展组织绩效的管理悖论相冲突，Armistead，C.&Meakins，M.采用的以下模型对此进行了解释，以及知识管理是由管理方法强加还是授权的。
Armistead, C. & Meakins, M. (2002)
Imposition is linked with bureaucracy, structured and controlled systems and attempts to codify all aspects of knowledge. It might expect such perceptions to be more inclined to explicit rather than tacit knowledge. In contrast, Empowerment recognized the potential in the social and individual for knowledge creation and sharing, in which the tacit as much as the explicit aspect of knowledge is engaged. The authors considered that managers are likely to be concerned with knowledge at an individual and organization level and with particular approaches to managing knowledge. Consequently they proposed a managerial framework which uses the constructs of imposed and empowered as one axis and the individual and the organization as the other.
强加与官僚主义、结构化和受控的系统以及试图编纂知识的所有方面相联系。它可能期望这种认知更倾向于显性知识而非隐性知识。相比之下，赋权意识到了社会和个人创造和分享知识的潜力，其中既有隐性知识，也有显性知识。作者认为，管理者可能关注个人和组织层面的知识，以及管理知识的特定方法。因此，他们提出了一个管理框架，该框架将强制和授权的结构作为一个轴心，将个人和组织作为另一个轴心。
– Prescribed recommends a official approach to knowledge and its management at an organizational level. It might see technology set up widely to detain, store up and guard knowledge.
–规定了在组织层面上对知识及其管理的官方方法。它可能会看到技术被广泛建立，以扣留、储存和保护知识。
– Compliance means individual engage in knowledge activities through contract and regulation. Resources are distributed via prescribed performance management processes.
–合规性是指个人通过合同和法规参与知识活动。通过规定的绩效管理流程分配资源。
– Adaptive engages with the informal within the social fabric of the organization in the logic of communities of practice and the self-management of teams.
–自适应在实践社区和团队自我管理的逻辑中，与组织社会结构中的非正式人员互动。
– Self-determination supports individuals to get responsibility for their part to learning in the knowledge creation and sharing processes.
–自我决定支持个人在知识创造和分享过程中承担学习责任。
From the above management paradox of how the knowledge is manage at an organizational and individual context. There is another well known model, called SECI or knowledge spiral model. The model did not only described that how the knowledge is managed but it also explained the overall knowledge creation process.
从上述管理悖论中可以看出，知识是如何在组织和个人环境中管理的。还有另一个众所周知的模型，称为SECI或知识螺旋模型。该模型不仅描述了如何管理知识，还解释了整个知识创建过程。
SECI Model SECI模型
In 1995, (Nonaka, I. & Takeuchi, H. 1995) introduced their SECI model, which stands for Socialization, Externalization, Combination and Internalization. The purpose of this model is to offer an understanding of how organizations create knowledge and formalize organization processes which are mostly tacit in nature. It further provides an understanding of knowledge sharing, its management and application at an organizational level. According to Nonaka, I. & Takeuchi, H. (1995) knowledge is formed from the interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge. These four knowledge conversion processes interconnected by moving from tacit to explicit knowledge as it moves from socialization to internalization then return to socialization to shape a spiral model of knowledge creation. Hiscock, J. (2004) stated that the first generation earlier to 1995, completely dependent on technologies in their daily task often known technocratic, but this is the second generation of knowledge management, where knowledge exchange is illustrated as a spiral – a thing to be managed and something which can be made explicit. As the purpose of this research it is to look at the barriers to knowledge management thus the only focal point from this model is to observe overall knowledge creation process. Nonaka, I. & Takeuchi, H. (1995) discussed that how tacit and explicit knowledge interrelate to successfully create knowledge in an organization via four conversion processes:
1995年，引入了SECI模型，即社会化、外部化、组合化和内部化。该模型的目的是了解组织如何创建知识，并将组织过程形式化，这些过程在本质上大多是默认的。它还提供了对知识共享、知识管理和组织层面应用的理解。根据Nonaka，I.和Takeuchi，H.的观点，知识是由隐性知识和显性知识之间的相互作用形成的。这四个知识转换过程相互关联，从隐性知识到显性知识，从社会化到内部化，然后再回到社会化，形成知识创造的螺旋模型。Hiscock，J.指出，早在1995年，第一代人在日常工作中完全依赖技术，通常被称为技术官僚，但这是第二代知识管理，其中知识交流被描述为螺旋形——一种需要管理的东西，一种可以明确表达的东西。由于本研究的目的是考察知识管理的障碍，因此该模型的唯一焦点是观察整个知识创造过程。Nonaka，I.和Takeuchi，H.讨论了隐性和显性知识如何通过四个转换过程相互关联，从而在组织中成功创建知识：
Socialization – tacit to tacit 社会化–隐性知识转换为隐性知识
Socialization is the process through which tacit knowledge is passed to others; it is directly related to the group processes and organizational culture. Tacit knowledge is often attained through sharing experiences, observations and the processes that arises without formal discussions and using language for instance face to face interaction. Interviewing and focus groups techniques are also creating tacit knowledge amongst people.
社会化是隐性知识传递给他人的过程；它与团队流程和组织文化直接相关。隐性知识通常是通过分享经验、观察和在没有正式讨论的情况下产生的过程以及使用语言（例如面对面互动）获得的。访谈和焦点小组技术也在人们中创造了隐性知识。
Externalization – tacit to explicit 外部化–隐性知识转换为显性知识
Externalization of tacit knowledge is the conversion of tacit knowledge to explicit. As tacit knowledge is embedded in the people’s mind and that is externalize or express by sharing of paradigms, metaphors and concepts through formal discussions. Nonaka, I & Takeuchi, H. (1995) declared that we have conceptualized an image; we generally tend to express it in language. Externalization is developing notions which facilitate tacit knowledge to communicate. Redesign of existing information can escort to new knowledge in the shape of written statements. Wakefield, R. (2006) argued that when knowledge is externalized and turn into explicit it is in fact converted back into information or data. Both have values, but this cannot be out until the data and information is internalized again to form knowledge that is used for some productive purposes.
隐性知识的外部化是隐性知识向显性知识的转化。因为隐性知识嵌入人们的头脑中，并通过正式讨论分享范式、隐喻和概念而被外化或表达。Nonaka，I&Takeuchi，H.宣称我们已经将图像概念化；我们通常倾向于用语言表达。外部化正在发展促进隐性知识交流的概念。对现有信息的重新设计可以以书面陈述的形式为新知识保驾护航。Wakefield，R.认为，当知识被外化并转化为显性时，它实际上又被转化为信息或数据。两者都有价值，但在数据和信息再次内化形成用于某些生产目的的知识之前，这是不可能的。
Combination – explicit to explicit 组合–显性知识到显性知识
Combination is a process of systemizing concept into a knowledge system, at this level explicit knowledge merged with written reports and other strategic documents through formal discussions (i.e. meetings, documents etc.). This process includes gathering significant knowledge then sorting, editing and distributing it, which allows knowledge sharing within organization. Formal education and training are also comprise in this type of knowledge conversion.
组合是将概念系统化为知识系统的过程，在这一层次上，通过正式讨论（即会议、文件等），将明确的知识与书面报告和其他战略文件相结合。这一过程包括收集重要知识，然后对其进行分类、编辑和分发，从而实现组织内的知识共享。正规教育和培训也包括在这类知识转换中。
Internalization explicit to tacit 显性到隐性内化
Internalization is a mechanism of altering explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge. It is achieved through individual expression and learning by doing. Once the explicit knowledge shared with individuals to internalize what they have experienced and then their understanding becomes tacit knowledge in the form of shared intellectual models or technological know-how which further become a valuable asset for the organization. For example: customer complaint are recorded and then read by other team members.
内化是一种将显性知识转化为隐性知识的机制。它是通过个人表达和在实践中学习来实现的。一旦与个人分享明确的知识以内化他们所经历的一切，他们的理解就会以共享的智力模型或技术诀窍的形式成为隐性知识，进而成为组织的宝贵资产。例如：记录客户投诉，然后由其他团队成员阅读。
key components and its related barriers to Knowledge 关键组成部分及其相关知识壁垒
Management 经营管理
DuPlessis, M. (2008) point out that knowledge management is a holistic solution integrating mixture of perspectives: people, process, technology and culture perspectives and every single one should hold equal influence. According to Gillingham, H. & Roberts, B. (2006), people, process and technology (soft and hard aspects) reveals the most essential features engaged in capturing, disseminating and sharing knowledge. These elements require to be balanced to guarantee that the complete benefits of knowledge sharing are exploited. Of course, people, process, and technology (PPT) are intertwined and no organizations get very far benefits without having a basic competency in all. But the tougher challenge in knowledge management is how to built ‘PPT’ into an organization. Collison, C. & Parcell, G. (2004) suggested that involving people who knows, and the behaviors to ask, listen and share, some processes to make things easier for sharing, validation, distillation, and a familiar, reliable technology infrastructure to facilitate sharing. Knowledge management is all concerning the integration of people, process, technology but strategy and structure too (Armistead, C. & Meakins, M. 2002). According to Quinn, F. (2008) the development of knowledge managements exposes many issues that firms claim to have solved completely. The issues for example related to business benefits, people and culture, technology and process. These issues reflect all the main areas of concern in a knowledge environment and can be produce the barriers or road block to achieving the corporate success that most of would wish to inhabit.
DuPlessis，M.指出，知识管理是一个综合性解决方案，融合了多种视角：人、过程、技术和文化视角，每一种视角都应具有同等的影响力。根据Gillingham，H.&Roberts，B.的说法，人、过程和技术（软方面和硬方面）揭示了获取、传播和共享知识的最基本特征。需要平衡这些要素，以确保充分利用知识共享的好处。当然，人员、流程和技术是相互交织的，没有一个组织在不具备基本能力的情况下就能获得很大的利益。但是，知识管理中更严峻的挑战是如何将“PPT”构建成一个组织。Collison，C.&Parcell，G.建议，让了解情况的人以及询问、倾听和分享的行为参与进来，一些流程可以让分享、验证、提炼变得更容易，并且有一个熟悉、可靠的技术基础设施来促进分享。知识管理不仅涉及人员、流程、技术的整合，还涉及战略和结构的整合。根据Quinn，F.的观点，知识管理的发展暴露了许多公司声称已经完全解决的问题。例如，这些问题涉及商业利益、人员和文化、技术和流程。这些问题反映了知识环境中的所有主要关注领域，并可能成为实现大多数人希望的企业成功的障碍或障碍。
People 人员
The biggest misunderstanding that the Information Technology (IT) leaders composed is that the knowledge management is all about technology. Gillingham, H. & Robert, B. (2006) confirmed that people are the most central and complex element in knowledge management. It is a people who create and share knowledge, Since, (tacit) knowledge is set aside in the individuals the most essential thing for knowledge management is the system to allow the conceal knowledge within an individual be spread to others in order for them to share, exploit, and then alter it into (explicit) knowledge within an organization (Yeh, Y. et al., 2006). Knowledge management helps us do what we do better and it’s connect information and people, and people and people. Call, D. (2005) suggested that people are not being able to gain knowledge in a minutes and hours but they learn over days or weeks and one of challenge is to detained knowledge from what people said and did as part of their everyday job and to build it reachable to rest in an organization. According to Gundry, J. & Metes, G. (1996) people behaviors is often manipulated by their beliefs, values, attitudes, and the organization culture. Influencing what people believe should direct to changes in values, attitudes and behavior in which knowledge is shared behavior. Gillingham H. & Robert, B. (2006) stated that it is complicated to get people to do things in a different way because people can simply fall back on defensive routines. A state of willingness require from individuals to get people to modify the way that they do things, it is central to manage those who are willing to create and share their knowledge (Yeh, Y. et al., 2006). According to the Abell, A. & and Oxbrow, N. (2001) people ask numbers of question in organization towards knowledge management for example: What is in knowledge for me? How does it make my job easier? What appreciation will I get for sharing my knowledge? Etc. It is important to identify what knowledge people need and what knowledge people already possess and how to link people and knowledge process.
信息技术（IT）领导者所构成的最大误解是知识管理都是关于技术的。Gillingham，H.&Robert，B.证实，人是知识管理中最核心和最复杂的要素。这是一个创造和分享知识的人，因为（隐性的）知识被保留在个人身上，知识管理最重要的是允许个人内部隐藏的知识传播给其他人，以便他们分享、利用，然后在组织内部将其转化为（显性的）知识的系统。知识管理帮助我们做得更好，它将信息与人、人与人联系起来。Call，D.认为，人们不可能在几分钟和几小时内获得知识，但他们会在几天或几周内学习，其中一个挑战是，将人们的言行作为日常工作的一部分，并将其建立在组织中休息的可及性上。根据Gundry，J.&Metes，G.的说法，人们的行为往往受到他们的信仰、价值观、态度和组织文化的影响。影响人们的信仰应该导致价值观、态度和行为的改变，在这些改变中，知识是共享的行为。Gillingham H.&Robert，B.指出，让人们以不同的方式做事是很复杂的，因为人们可以简单地回到防御的常规中。意愿状态要求个人改变他们做事的方式，管理那些愿意创造和分享知识的人至关重要。根据Abell，A.和Oxbrow，N.的说法，人们在组织中对知识管理提出了许多问题，例如：知识对我来说是什么？它如何使我的工作更容易？分享我的知识会得到什么样的赞赏？识别人们需要什么知识，人们已经拥有什么知识，以及如何将人们和知识过程联系起来，这一点很重要。
In any system where information or knowledge is accessible, there must be adequate security to ensure that only appropriate people are able to see what knowledge is held and by whom, in that case ‘confidentiality’ is the barrier to crafting a knowledge sharing culture in the organization (DuPlessis, M. 2008). But from the organizational point of view, one can comprehend that it is in national interest that the particular knowledge stays confidential. In other word the right information and knowledge should distributed to the right people at the right time and right place. For example in defense sectors and utilities provider such as countries like South Africa where they have one and only major energy provider, their key knowledge and information would be exceptionally secret hence it should be strongly managed (Sutton, S. & Leech, S. 2002).
在任何可获取信息或知识的系统中，必须有足够的安全性，以确保只有适当的人员才能看到所掌握的知识以及由谁掌握的知识，在这种情况下，“保密”是在组织中形成知识共享文化的障碍。但从组织的角度来看，人们可以理解，特定知识保密符合国家利益。换句话说，正确的信息和知识应该在正确的时间和地点分发给正确的人。例如，在国防部门和公用事业提供商，如南非等国家，他们只有一家主要能源提供商，他们的关键知识和信息将非常保密，因此应严格管理。
‘Employee often does not know what is the concept of knowledge management’ – their perception about knowledge as resources in not clear as capital assets resources. In the view of McCann, J. & Buckner, M. (2004) people do not include knowledge into their work process to make final products and services and even do not feel responsible for sharing their own knowledge with colleagues. Kols, A. (2004) submitted that people do not even realize that they have knowledge worth sharing. Employees viewed knowledge management as an additional job, processes and formal channel of communications which is not incorporated into their daily working environment (DuPlessis, M. 2008). Another potential factor; ’employed turnover’, where experienced employees transferred, promoted, retired, or fired from the organization, both their tacit and explicit knowledge may be lost unless the organization makes a concerted effort to assure that it is shared.
“员工通常不知道什么是知识管理的概念”——他们对知识作为资源的看法并不清楚，不清楚是资本资产资源。在McCann，J.&Buckner，M.的观点中，人们没有将知识纳入他们的工作流程中，以制作最终产品和服务，甚至没有责任与同事分享自己的知识。Kols，A.认为，人们甚至没有意识到自己拥有值得分享的知识。员工将知识管理视为一项额外的工作、过程和正式的沟通渠道，而这些工作、流程和沟通渠道并未纳入他们的日常工作环境。另一个潜在因素；'员工离职”，即经验丰富的员工从组织中调离、晋升、退休或被解雇，除非组织做出一致努力确保共享，否则他们的隐性和显性知识可能会丢失。
Knowledge management setup and implementations requires sufficient ‘time’ which is often claimed constraint. Time can be a difficult area or barrier, where employees are considered on the hourly basis, for example; accountants, lawyers, solicitors and engineers. For them, time is wealth and it is hard to modify the view that knowledge management be able to make them work smarter and quicker, even if they do expend some time on it upfront (DuPlessis, M. 2008). When the organization was steady and developing smoothly, it would be feasible for people to take extra time and effort to get involved in such knowledge management activities. Once the circumstances changed, these practices would be easily gone down because they were peripheral to business operations (Lin, L. & Kwok, L. 2006).
知识管理的设置和实施需要足够的“时间”，这通常被称为限制。时间可能是一个困难的领域或障碍，例如，员工按小时计算；会计师、律师、律师和工程师。对他们来说，时间就是财富，很难改变知识管理能够让他们更聪明、更快地工作的观点，即使他们确实在这方面花费了一些时间。当组织稳定且发展顺利时，人们可以花费额外的时间和精力来参与此类知识管理活动。一旦情况发生变化，这些做法将很容易被淘汰，因为它们与商业运营无关。
Process 流程
Armistead, C. & Meakins, M. (2002) declared that knowledge management is a process rather than an asset, and hence to facilitate maximize its value an organization must have to form an environment that facilitates the flow of knowledge. The argument between technology and people is about the ways of managing knowledge processes. Barnes, P. (2007), Probst et al., (2000) categorizes knowledge management in six core processes; knowledge identification, knowledge acquisition, knowledge expansion, knowledge sharing or distribution, knowledge exploitation and knowledge preservation. In order to share knowledge, one requires tools or processes: Expert locater systems, communities of practice (formal and informal), distance learning information-sharing tools, emergent expertise, storytelling, knowledge repositories, conferences/workshops/ seminars, e-learning applications and virtual communities are some of the methods organizations can use to disseminate knowledge. Abell, A. & Oxbrow, N. (2001) believed that people make process work, often through informal steps- how can these be formalized and how to build communities around business processes. Process must learn – how to achieve the commitment of people to the learning process and how to integrate knowledge creation and utilization into business process. Processes need technology support- how to integrate business benefits and technology capability, it also require formal and informal communication between employees.
Armistead，C.&Meakins，M.宣称，知识管理是一个过程，而不是一种资产，因此为了实现其价值的最大化，组织必须形成一个促进知识流动的环境。技术和人之间的争论是关于管理知识过程的方式。Barnes，P.，Probst等人，将知识管理分为六个核心过程；知识识别、知识获取、知识扩展、知识共享或分配、知识开发和知识保存。为了分享知识，需要工具或流程：专家定位器系统、实践社区（正式和非正式）、远程学习信息共享工具、突发专业知识、讲故事、知识库、会议/研讨会/研讨会、电子学习应用程序和虚拟社区是组织传播知识的一些方法。Abell，A.和Oxbrow，N.认为，人们通常通过非正式步骤来实现流程工作——这些步骤如何正式化，以及如何围绕业务流程建立社区。流程必须学习——如何实现人们对学习流程的承诺，以及如何将知识创造和利用融入业务流程。流程需要技术支持——如何整合业务效益和技术能力，还需要员工之间的正式和非正式沟通。
‘Lack of communication’, non-standardized processes and information systems and not knowing where to get knowledge. Gillingham, H. & Roberts, B. (2006) stated that location and distance (geographical, legal, cultural and lingual) to access of vast organization knowledge can be a bottleneck Informal communication outlook as just chitchat or chatty activity, managers do not see the advantage of (tacit) knowledge process or transfer from one employee to another hence often employees are restricted to engage in discussing projects or ideas at meeting places such as near to water coolers or coffee machines (Webb, S. 1998).
“缺乏沟通”，流程和信息系统不规范，不知道从哪里获取知识。Gillingham，H.&Roberts，B.指出，获取大量组织知识的位置和距离（地理、法律、文化和语言）可能是一个瓶颈非正式沟通观，就像闲聊或闲聊活动一样，管理者看不到（隐性的）知识过程或从一名员工转移到另一名员工的优势，因此，员工通常被限制在会议场所（如靠近水冷却器或咖啡机）讨论项目或想法。
However ‘organization confusion’ over the focus of the initiative often creates barriers to knowledge management: information or knowledge management; knowledge management or learning organization; which should lead human resources (HR) or information technology (IT). However there is danger in attempting to identify and collect everything available. According to Giannetto, K. & Wheeler, A. (2000) if too much detail is gathered, it is impossible to distinguish what might be of value to employees and it will become a huge unmanageable, bureaucratic nightmare Organizations ‘focus on collection not connection’ and attempt to capture all organization knowledge in repositories, often creating electronic bucket in place of physical filing cabinets also misunderstand the difference between tacit and explicit knowledge and treat it in the same way.
然而，对倡议重点的“组织混乱”往往会给知识管理带来障碍：信息或知识管理；知识管理或学习组织；其应领导人力资源或信息技术。然而，试图识别和收集所有可用的信息是有危险的。根据Giannetto，K.&Wheeler，A.的说法，如果收集了太多的细节，就无法区分哪些可能对员工有价值，这将成为一个巨大的难以管理的官僚噩梦，通常用电子桶代替物理文件柜也会误解隐性知识和显性知识之间的区别，并以同样的方式对待它们。
Technology 技术
The role of technology is significant; it is ultimately a facilitator of human knowledge in the organization. Technology or IS does not hold tacit knowledge, as it is held in the human brain (Rock, S. 1998), although it is transfer medium of tacit into explicit knowledge to some extend because tacit knowledge alters with each new experience and technology should be updated frequently. Armistead, C. & Meakins, M. (2002) affirmed that information technology can enable speedy search, access and retrieval of information, and can support collaboration and communication between organizational members. In real meaning, it can undoubtedly play a variety of roles to support an organization’s knowledge management processes. Technologies and knowledge management are strongly tied, because both assist the circulation of structured knowledge vertically and horizontally in the organization. (Yeh, Y. et al., 2006) argued that technology plays following roles in knowledge management:
技术的作用是重要的；它最终是组织中人类知识的促进者。技术或信息系统不包含隐性知识，因为它存在于人脑中，尽管它在某种程度上是隐性知识向显性知识的转移媒介，因为隐性知识会随着每一次新的体验而改变，技术也应经常更新。Armistead，C.&Meakins，M.肯定了信息技术可以实现信息的快速搜索、访问和检索，并可以支持组织成员之间的协作和通信。在实际意义上，它无疑可以扮演多种角色来支持组织的知识管理过程。技术和知识管理紧密相连，因为两者都有助于结构化知识在组织中的纵向和横向传播。认为，技术在知识管理中扮演着以下角色：
– acquiring knowledge;获取知识
– classify, store, index, and tie knowledge related digital items;对与知识相关的数字项目进行分类、存储、索引和关联
– search and identify related content; and 搜索和识别相关内容，以及
– flexibly communicate the content based on the different utilization backgrounds.根据不同的使用背景灵活地交流内容。
Knowledge management classifications are broadly defined technologies which improve and enable knowledge generation, codification and transfer. Peoples experiences and interpretations that add value, transforms into knowledge by using technologies. Knowledge management (technology) tools for instance: e-mail, document systems, groupware, the internet, intranet and video conferencing are all knowledge collaboration tools which can be use for gathering, organizing and sharing knowledge in the organizations (Gillingham, H. & Roberts, B. 2006).
知识管理分类是广泛定义的技术，可改进和促进知识生成、编纂和转让。人们的经验和解释增加了价值，通过使用技术转化为知识。知识管理（技术）工具，例如：电子邮件、文档系统、群件、互联网、内联网和视频会议都是知识协作工具，可用于组织中收集、组织和共享知识。
Not everyone is ‘computer literate’ and that sort of illiteracy become a cause which brake knowledge management processes also people finds that working with complex systems is not easy (DuPlessis, M. 2006). Sometimes it is more challenging for the organization to get people trained to using the KM tools (technologies) to facilitate knowledge sharing and retention.
并非所有人都“懂计算机”，这种文盲成为阻碍知识管理进程的原因。人们还发现，使用复杂系统并不容易。有时，组织更难让员工接受使用知识管理工具（技术）的培训，以促进知识共享和保留。
Holland, J. & Johanson, U. 2003) recognized that organization consideration towards ‘technological costs’ sometimes restrain in respect of installing knowledge management software’s and hardware’s. Perhaps both are very expensive in terms of getting licenses for every member in a large organization. Since knowledge is an intangible asset, it is more complex for organization to calculate return on investment in hard form (cash), therefore step back from any initiative; however Collison, C & Parcell, G. (2001) believed that knowledge benefits can be defined in qualitative and quantitative measures. Another barriers occur when technology is not ‘up to date’ with the business processes as well as with the improvements in the technological world then knowledge and information might become rapidly old-fashioned and if maintenance and back-ups is not done regularly, knowledge can be vanished in a catastrophe situation, which is not only costly but also irretrievable.
Holland，J.&Johanson认识到，组织对“技术成本”的考虑有时会限制知识管理软件和硬件的安装。在一个大型组织中，要为每个成员获得许可证，这两种方式可能都非常昂贵。由于知识是一种无形资产，所以组织计算硬形式（现金）的投资回报率更为复杂，因此要放弃任何主动行动；然而，Collison，C&Parcell，G.认为，知识收益可以用定性和定量的方法来定义。当技术与业务流程以及技术世界的进步不同步时，就会出现另一个障碍，那么知识和信息可能会迅速过时，如果不定期进行维护和备份，知识可能会在灾难情况下消失，这不仅代价高昂，而且无法挽回。
The advance type of communications for example; ‘intranet’ if organizations only rely on this then it will be a huge barrier to the exchange of tacit knowledge. Davenport, T & Prusak, L. (2000) suggest that knowledge sharing events happen when people connect via communities of practice and in person meetings.
例如，先进的通信类型如果组织仅仅依靠内部网，那么它将成为交流隐性知识的巨大障碍。Davenport，T&Prusak，L.认为，当人们通过实践社区和面对面会议进行联系时，知识共享活动就会发生。
Culture 文化
Chen, C. & Huang, J. (2007) described organizational culture as shared value, beliefs, and work atmospheres that could have considerable impacts on the behaviors of employees. According to Yeh, Y. et al., (2006) culture is the combination of value, core belief, behavior model, and emblem. Culture is normally reflected in the form of organization’s corporate structure, management and leadership style, learning from experience, norms, and practices, trust, rewards and recognition, networks and community of practices etc (DeLong, DW. & Fahey, L. 2004, Al-Hawamdeh, S. 2003). Culture can play a role for organizational learning and every organization’s culture is an independent entity different than any other organization. Alavi, M. & Leidner, D. (2001) suggested that it is significant to comprehend that knowledge management is not as much of technical problem, but it is more of cultural problem. Culture is not only intangible and illusive, but it can also be observed at multiple levels in an organization.
Chen，C.和Huang，J.将组织文化描述为共同的价值观、信念和工作氛围，可能会对员工的行为产生重大影响。根据Yeh，Y.等人的观点，文化是价值观、核心信仰、行为模式和象征的组合。文化通常体现在组织的公司结构、管理和领导风格、从经验、规范和实践中学习、信任、奖励和认可、网络和实践社区等方面。文化可以在组织学习中发挥作用，每个组织的文化都是不同于其他组织的独立实体。Alavi，M.&Leidner，D.认为，理解知识管理不是技术问题，而是文化问题是非常重要的。文化不仅是无形的和虚幻的，而且在一个组织的多个层面上也可以观察到。
‘Trust and honesty’ are elements of culture – sometime not clearly visible, Davenport, T. & Prusak, L. (2000) confirmed that without these elements knowledge management would not function properly between individuals. Employees ask many questions themselves for instance; if I share knowledge will others misuse it, can I belief the knowledge that others created (Abell, A. & Oxbrow, N. 2001).
“信任和诚实”是文化的要素——有时并不明显，Davenport，T.&Prusak，L.证实，如果没有这些要素，知识管理将无法在个人之间正常运作。例如，员工自己会问很多问题；如果我分享知识，别人会滥用它吗？我能相信别人创造的知识吗。
Another familiar barrier point out by Kols, A. (2004) ‘knowledge as a source of power or authority’ and therefore hoarding it, similarly organizations are naturally unwilling to share their skills and know-how with rivals. Employees possibly will not willing to share their knowledge because they might lose control/power, they spotlight on continued existence in the organization rather than willingness to share knowledge (Clegg, S. & Palmer, G. 1996). The following Chinese sayings depicting this philosophy with influences from such widespread beliefs, knowledge sharing becomes more complex.
Kols，A.指出的另一个熟悉的障碍是“知识是权力或权威的来源”，因此，组织自然不愿意与竞争对手分享他们的技能和诀窍。员工可能不愿意分享他们的知识，因为他们可能会失去控制/权力，他们关注的是组织中的持续存在，而不是分享知识的意愿。以下中国谚语描述了这一哲学，并受到广泛信仰的影响，知识共享变得更加复杂。
“A good mastery of a single skill ensures a lifetime employment” – (Lin, L. & Kwok, L. 2006).“熟练掌握一项技能可确保终身就业”
Internal divisions are general obstacle. Each department, field office, service delivery site, or project team tends to focus on its own problems, have limited contact with outsiders, and unaware of what other subdivisions are doing. Davenport, T. & Prusak, L. (2000) stated that employee often assumes that the people in top of ‘organizational hierarchy’ have greater knowledge and expertise and this difference amongst individual may be seen as a barrier. Employees on different hierarchical or designations frequently struggle to share knowledge between these levels, as they feel they may have much or more knowledge on a particular subject but not consulted or totally ignored because of their position in organization. Furthermore Webb, S. (1998) revealed that managers often try to avoid consult subordinates because they might ‘fear for losing face’. If skills are greatly diverse within professional areas and/or within ranks, it might obstruct the tools and practice through the knowledge is shared between levels.
内部分歧是普遍的障碍。每个部门、总部外办事处、服务提供场所或项目团队都倾向于关注自己的问题，与外界接触有限，不知道其他部门在做什么。Davenport，T.&Prusak，L.指出，员工通常认为“组织层级”最高层的人员拥有更丰富的知识和专业知识，个人之间的差异可能被视为障碍。不同等级或指定的员工经常难以在这些级别之间分享知识，因为他们觉得自己可能对某一特定主题有很多或更多的知识，但由于他们在组织中的地位，他们没有被咨询或完全忽视。此外，Webb，S.揭示了管理者经常试图避免咨询下属，因为他们可能“害怕丢脸”。如果专业领域和/或级别内的技能差异很大，这可能会阻碍工具和实践，因为知识在各个级别之间共享。
Organization consists of multiple ‘genders’ and seeking assistance from same gender whether the person is helpful or not is normal cause and may be a barrier. Bartram, S. (2005) stated that women in managerial position often seen as one of the cultural barrier. Also assorted age makes a differentiation at the point of exchanging knowledge.
组织由多个“性别”组成，无论该人是否有帮助，寻求同一性别的帮助都是正常的原因，可能是一个障碍。Bartram，S.指出，担任管理职位的女性通常被视为文化障碍之一。不同年龄的人在交换知识方面也有区别。
Webb S. (1998) believed that employees are unwilling to share knowledge if the future economic growth of ‘organization is unstable’ and they strive to secure their position by retention of tacit knowledge as power. The overall organization instability may spoil social networks and reduce flow of knowledge from one corner to another in an organization (Lesser, E. & Prusak, L. 2001). Management emphasis on individual rather than team, disincentive to knowledge sharing, competition between employees, motivational limitations, lack of acknowledging for the supplier of knowledge, sub-standard physical layout of work space, and fewer management commitments could be a constraint for knowledge sharing environment (Chase, R. 1997).
Webb S.认为，如果“组织”未来的经济增长不稳定，员工不愿意分享知识，他们努力通过保留隐性知识作为权力来确保自己的地位。整个组织的不稳定性可能会破坏社会网络，减少组织中从一个角落到另一个角落的知识流动。管理层强调个人而非团队、阻碍知识共享、员工之间的竞争、激励限制、缺乏对知识供应商的认可、工作空间的物理布局不符合标准以及管理层的承诺较少，这些都可能是知识共享环境的制约因素。
How the barriers of knowledge management can be managed?如何管理知识管理的障碍？
Knowledge management is a lengthy and iterative process and its related benefits realized over a period of time. There are no rapid fix solutions to counter these barriers. However to overcome these barriers an organizations require to undertake essential approaches and actions. According to Du Plessis, M. (2008) knowledge management barriers directly line up with organizational, national and personnel culture. Top and senior managements can play a significant role for instance by raising the awareness of knowledge management activities and its benefits into work place (Birkinshaw, J. 2001). At any level of knowledge management it is compulsory to make sure that employees trained on the basis of knowledge management, once the knew the insights of knowledge management they are enough able to see how its adds value into their routine jobs and how organization can create social and intangible capital. However if employees ignore or do not understand the notion of knowledge management then they will not be capable to leverage it completely, even though organizations have elegant knowledge management plans and systems. Flexibilities between departments could span knowledge sharing boundaries. Employees should not reserve by position in a hierarchy and retain by resources.
知识管理是一个漫长而反复的过程，其相关利益在一段时间内实现。没有快速解决方案来应对这些障碍。然而，为了克服这些障碍，组织需要采取必要的方法和行动。根据Du Plessis，M.的观点，知识管理障碍与组织、国家和人员文化直接相关。高层和高级管理人员可以发挥重要作用，例如，通过提高对知识管理活动及其对工作场所的益处的认识。在任何级别的知识管理中，都必须确保员工在知识管理的基础上接受培训，一旦他们了解了知识管理的见解，他们就能够充分了解知识管理如何为他们的日常工作增加价值，以及组织如何创造社会和无形资本。然而，如果员工忽视或不理解知识管理的概念，那么他们将无法完全利用知识管理，即使组织拥有优雅的知识管理计划和系统。部门之间的灵活性可以跨越知识共享的界限。员工不应按职位保留，而应按资源保留。
Davenport, T. & Prusak, L. (2000) stated that the components of knowledge management: people, process and technology must be uniformly supplied in terms of time and money. The most powerful force in knowledge management is people because they can able to change their environment so trust in people is an extraordinary phenomenon in managing people and their knowledge. Milton, N. (nd) described two other ways to manage knowledge called connect and collect, however these terms are vastly similar to the Nonaka, I. & Takeuchi, H. ‘SECI model’ (see section 2.7). The S mean Socialization and it begins through the connecting people into social networks where they can able to talk, to share dialogues with other people where the other three boxes named Externalization, Combination and Internalization is all about revolving tacit knowledge into explicit into tacit knowledge. For example knowledge is documented, recorded into knowledge system or knowledge repository in an organized way thus the others can access it. Organizational culture should abide for mistakes by recognizing and gratifying innovative errors, also there should be no fear of losing position from not knowing the entire thing (Gillingham, H. & Robert, B. 2006). In the view of Barnes, P. (2007), decentralize structure gives opportunities to know where the decisive knowledge is located and able to make more accurate decisions. Incentive and reward systems not only influence members to support knowledge management activities but it also encourage their willingness to take part in the creation and sharing knowledge (Yeh, Y. et al., 2006). Lack of trust alters into culture of trust and confidence get by face to face interactions; it’s not only the way of transferring tacit knowledge between individuals but it allows to evaluating the trustworthiness of both the giver and the receiver. Use of technology in knowledge management stipulates user training and members should have skills available other than technical ones such as interpersonal skills. According to the Abell, A. & Oxbrow, N. (2001) technologies should not be the driver and substitute of social interactions; neither should it be a barrier.
Davenport，T.&Prusak，L.指出，知识管理的组成部分：人员、流程和技术必须在时间和金钱方面统一提供。知识管理中最强大的力量是人，因为他们能够改变自己的环境，因此对人的信任是管理人及其知识的一种非凡现象。Milton，N.（描述了另外两种管理知识的方法，称为连接和收集，但这些术语与Nonaka，I.和Takeuchi，H.的“SECI模型”极为相似。S意味着社会化，它开始于将人们连接到社交网络中，在社交网络中他们可以交谈，与其他人分享对话，其中其他三个框“外部化”、“组合”和“内部化”都是关于将隐性知识转化为显性知识和隐性知识。例如，知识以有组织的方式被记录、记录到知识系统或知识库中，从而其他人可以访问它。组织文化应该通过承认和满足创新错误来容忍错误，也不应该因为不了解整个事情而害怕失去地位。Barnes，P.认为，去中心化结构提供了了解决定性知识所在位置的机会，并能够做出更准确的决策。激励和奖励制度不仅影响成员支持知识管理活动，还鼓励他们参与知识创造和分享的意愿。缺乏信任会转变为面对面交流中获得的信任和信心文化；这不仅是在个人之间传递隐性知识的方式，而且可以评估给予者和接受者的可信度。在知识管理中使用技术规定了用户培训，成员应具备除技术技能以外的其他技能，如人际交往技能。根据Abell，A.和Oxbrow，N.的观点，技术不应成为社会互动的驱动力和替代品；这也不应成为障碍。
Summary 总结
Every organizations is a knowledge based and they possesses particular knowledge in various forms such as in human capital, structure capital, intellectual capital etc. and the issue of knowledge management is essential because organization lives in uncertain world. The above literature has been identified potential barriers to knowledge management which was categorized into organizational culture, people perceptions, ineffective processes and obsolete technologies. There is no cause to believe that those barriers will not impact on knowledge sharing to a more or fewer extent within an organization and between personnel. However the rationale of this study was not to classify an extensive organizational barrier profile but the principle was merely to recognize a set of commonly studied barriers in knowledge management which can be apparent in various means across an organization. When organizations managed and implement knowledge in a logical and structure way it can add value to both the employees and organizations effectiveness. The literature review also fascinated that knowledge management is a social activity or relies on social models, even though sharing of knowledge can be possible from technologies but recipient and sender of knowledge are still humans. Organizational culture, employee’s perceptions and their characteristics, sources of knowledge creation and the context in which knowledge is shared are key consideration in knowledge management.
Literature Review总结每个组织都是以知识为基础的，它们拥有各种形式的特定知识，如人力资本、结构资本、智力资本等，知识管理问题至关重要，因为组织生活在不确定的世界中。上述文献已经确定了知识管理的潜在障碍，这些障碍分为组织文化、人员认知、无效流程和过时技术。没有理由相信，这些障碍或多或少不会影响组织内部和人员之间的知识共享。然而，这项研究的基本原理并不是要对广泛的组织障碍进行分类，而是要认识到知识管理中一组常见的障碍，这些障碍可以在整个组织中以各种方式表现出来。当组织以逻辑和结构的方式管理和实施知识时，它可以为员工和组织的效率增加价值。这篇文献综述还让人着迷的是，知识管理是一种社会活动或依赖于社会模式，尽管技术可以共享知识，但知识的接受者和发送者仍然是人类。组织文化、员工的认知及其特征、知识创造的来源以及知识共享的环境是知识管理的关键考虑因素。本站提供各国各专业留学生Literature Review代写或知道服务，如有需要可咨询本平台。
