Psychological and biological theories of crime in criminolog-犯罪学里犯罪的心理学和生物学理论

1. Introduction  引言
 

Criminology is not an old science; nevertheless it is possible to say that the steps of its creation started long before its official definition as a science. The necessity of this science is especially high nowadays when, the level of crime has risen immensely in every corner of the planet. The attempt to explain the human behavior has already become a priority for many scientists all over the world. The rich socio-historical experience of the humanity in the past gives an additional opportunity for adequate understanding of modern criminology and the problems solved by the given branch of knowledge. Criminology had several factors that especially influenced its development. These factors provide a lot of back up information for a better understanding of criminology and its possibilities.

犯罪学是不是一门老科学；但可以说，在官方定义其为一门科学之前其创作的有一个漫长的过程。在当今这门科学的必要性是特别高的，在地球上的每一个角落的犯罪水平已经无限上升。试图解释人类行为已成为世界各国优先考虑的问题。丰富的社会历史经验的人类在过去充分理解现代犯罪学和问题的解决，并产生了知识的分支。犯罪学，特别是影响其发展的几个因素。这些因素提供了很多更好地了解犯罪及其可能性的信息。
 

2. Peculiarities of criminology  犯罪学的特点
 

Criminology is a socially-legal interdisciplinary science and an integral part of legislation. As it has been already mentioned, the beginning of the existence of criminology as a separate science started in the middle of the XIX century. Its start is strongly associated with the works of a famous criminologist Cesar Lombroso. Criminology as a science has a list of primary problems that it is to solve. The first one to mention is the analytical problem which lies in the detailed researched of the phenomenon of criminality, its general condition and the categorization of all the existing criminal manifestations. So therefore criminology provides a correct “picture” of the present criminal situation in any given geographical location. Other problems include the prognosis of the potential criminal situation, the prevention of criminality and the determination of the causes and the consequences of crime. One of the most important criminological issues of the new era is the designation of the crime determinants. So basically criminology has four main priorities to study: criminality, the personality of criminals, the reasons and the conditions under which criminality takes place and the possible methods of prevention. There have been many attempts to understand the true causes of crime. These attempts are especially revealed through the existing theories in criminology. Nevertheless, the biological and the psychological theories are the ones most spread and their contradiction constantly results in numerous arguments between the supporters of both of the theories. In order to make any concrete conclusions on any of these theories it is necessary to analyze them and their contribution in criminology.#p#分页标题#e#

犯罪是社会法律交叉学科的研究和立法的一个组成部分。因为它已经提到，犯罪学开始作为一个独立的科学开始于十九世纪中期。一开始是与一个著名的犯罪学家塞萨尔投稿者作品强烈相关。犯罪学作为一门科学有一个解决主要问题的列表。第一个提到的是具体的犯罪现象进行分析，其一般情况、现有的所有犯罪表现的分类。因此，犯罪提供了正确的“图片”，在任何给定的地理位置的犯罪现状。其他问题包括潜在的犯罪情况，犯罪的预防和原因的确定和犯罪的后果。一个新时代最重要的问题是犯罪学研究设计。所以基本上犯罪学研究主要有4个优先事项：犯罪，犯罪人的人格，原因和条件，犯罪的需要。已经有许多尝试解犯罪的真正原因。这些尝试通过在现有理论揭示了犯罪学。然而，生物学和心理学理论的传播和在两种理论的支持者之间的许多观点的矛盾不断的结果。为了对这些犯罪学的具体理论进行分析是必要的。
 

3. Biological theories in criminology  犯罪生物学理论
 

The biological theories primarily study the physical constitution and endocrinology. They are a bright example of the theories that has not really got any practical support. The misunderstanding of these theories has caused a stereotype that if a person is a criminal then he was born as a criminal and any steps taken in order to change or to influence them are useless. Biological theories are only a part and one the interpretation of criminality but not the only. In the present time there is no assertive evidence of the fact, that the physical constitution and other biological factors cause criminality.

Nevertheless, these theories have a right to exist and there was a lot of important information that was used in terms of the development of criminology as a science.

The most vivid example of the biological determinism is the theory of Cesare Lombroso. Lombroso based his theory on the assumption that criminals have certain physiognomic features or abnormalities. Lombroso wanted to be able to detect future criminals in order to isolate them from the society. This gave criminology a strong push to create new methods of dealing with criminals and prevent crimes. Lombroso implied that prisoners had common facial characteristics. If to exaggerate criminals in Lombroso’s theory can be identified through the shape of their skulls, asymmetry of the face and head, large cheekbones, ears and lips, long arms and a twisted nose. Lombroso’s theory is the oldest one and it can without a doubt be called the main background data for the whole process of the development of criminology. Lombroso stated that men are more inclined to commit crimes due to the conservatism and the narrow-mindedness of their interests. According to Lombroso women have less social contacts and this is what predetermines their conservatism. This theory of female deviance seems to be very discriminating and not a present-day issue. The evaluation of a person as a “born criminal” basing on his facial features is at least not ethical and rather primitive. Lombroso considered this “born criminals” to be the “atavisms” of the society.#p#分页标题#e#

All the biological theories are based on the notion that biological markers foreordain criminal behavior. The core of all these theories is that genetic factors or any abnormalities which are inherited or acquired throughout the life, predispose individuals to the criminal behavior. Lombroso’s theory gave life to probably almost every single biological theory that appeared afterward.

 

Among the biological theories the XYY syndrome occupies a special place, as it analyzes why males are more often subjects to become criminals due to the presence if an extra Y chromosome. As this syndrome is in the first place associated with the low IQ-level of such males which seems to be a much better explanation. IQ shortage causes the inability to adjust in the contemporary social world that requires constant activity and flexibility. People facing these difficulties are left with no other choice that to turn to criminality. It all starts with low performance at school which results in the awareness of the “irretrievable dissimilitude” from others which later on results in deviance. Also such diseases as Organic Brain Syndrome, ADD or hormonal changes according to the biological theories play a very important role in the inclination to any criminal activities.

Another famous biological theory is the theory of William Sheldon. He based his research and inferences on Kretschmer's constitutional personality. For instance, Sheldon pointed out three main body types which are to explain the potential bent to criminal activity: endomorph, mesomorph and ectomorph. Endomorph is a type hat is fat and therefore is primarily concerned with consumption. Mesomorph is defined through skinny intelligent introverts and ectomorph characterizes large dynamic people. Sheldon claimed that disproportionately mesomorphic people are more often subjects to criminal behavior than any other body type. In spite of the variety of biological theories nowadays it is clear that there is no possibility to consider that any person can be a “born criminal”, because it is very hard to underestimate the social factors and all the psychological issues connected with them. Lombroso’s theory was a good start for criminology but this point of view needed to transform into something new and not one-sided.

 

4. Psychological theories in criminology  犯罪心理学理论
 

The main idea of the psychological theories is that potential criminal behavior is the result of stable psychological trait of a person. These personality characteristics are he ones to push people towards committing crimes and demonstrating deviant behavior. The psychological theories emphasize the meaning of extraversion, neuroticism, psychotisism and may others of the conduct of a man. According to the psychological theories the disposition to crime is the result of inadequate socialization. They consider the social factor to be one of the most important ones in terms of inclination to deviance.#p#分页标题#e#

Among the numerous psychological theories it is important to point out Sigmund Freud’s and Erik Erikson’s psychodynamic theories, Skinner’s operant conditioning, Albert Bandura’s social-learning theory and the theory of moral development based on Kohlberg’s and Piaget’s stages of development.

 

Freud touched the problem of possible personality imbalance based on the functioning of Id, Ego and Superego resulting in the repression which can later proceed into criminal behavior. Erikson made an emphasis on the child development. He was particularly solicitous about the problem of identity diffusion which resulted in excessively self-conscious people who are overly concerned with sexuality. Erikson pointed out the problem of unfulfilled expectations which form a negative identity. In its turn this negative identity when possessed by a person make him want to show it out and he most common way to do it is to rebel against everything. The rebel against social norms is a bright example of how negative identity can result in criminal behavior. This theory performs a perfect base of how deviance can be stopped at early age.

The next major theory to mention is Skinner’s operant conditioning theory which is founded on the standard scheme of stimulus > reaction. According to Skinner the reward-based actions can form the desired behavior of a person and therefore also provide important information in terms of the prevention of criminality.

Bandura in his psychological social learning or also known as the social learning theory states: “Learning would be exceedingly laborious…if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do… from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action” [Bandura, 22]. Bandura claimed that modeling plays the most important role in the behavior formation.