HRM Essay代写：Content and Process Theories of Work Motivation

HRM Essay代写-工作动机的内容与过程理论。本文是一篇HRM 留学Essay写作范文，主要内容是讲述工作动机理论可以大致分为内容理论和过程理论。内容理论关注的是确定人们的需求，以及如何优先考虑需求。他们关注的是激励人们实现需求的激励类型。马斯洛层次理论、弗雷德里克·赫茨伯格的双因素理论和阿尔德弗的ERG需求理论都属于这一类。尽管这样的内容方法具有逻辑性，易于理解，并且可以在实践中容易地翻译，但研究证据指出了局限性。这些模型的理论基础和可预测性几乎没有研究支持。简单的折衷牺牲了对工作动机复杂性的真正理解。然而，从积极的方面来看，内容模型强调了重要的内容因素，这些因素在很大程度上被人类关系学家所忽视。此外，Alderfer的ERG需求理论允许更大的灵活性，Herzberg的双因素理论可以作为工作满意度的解释和工作设计的出发点。下面提供HRM 留学Essay写作范文供参考。

The work motivation theories can be broadly classified as content theories and process theories. The content theories are concerned with identifying the needs that people have and how needs are prioritized. They are concerned with types of incentives that drive people to attain need fulfillment. The Maslow hierarchy theory, Fredrick Herzberg's two factor theory and Alderfer's ERG needs theory fall in this category. Although such a content approach has logic, is easy to understand, and can be readily translated in practice, the research evidence points out limitations. There is very little research support for these models' theoretical basic and predictability. The trade off for simplicity sacrifices true understanding of the complexity of work motivation. On the positive side, however, the content models have given emphasis to important content factors that were largely ignored by human relationists. In addition the Alderfer's ERG needs theory allows more flexibility and Herzberg's two-factor theory is useful as an explanation for job satisfaction and as a point of departure for job design.
The process theories are concerned with the cognitive antecedents that go into motivation and with the way they are related to one another. The theories given by Vroom, Porter and Lawler, equity theory and attribution theory fall in this category. These theories provide a much sounder explanation of work motivations. The expectancy model of Vroom and the extensions and the refinements provided by Porter and Lawler help explain the important cognitive variables and how they relate to one another in the process of work motivation. The Porter Lawler model also gives specific attention to the important relationship between performance and satisfaction. A growing research literature is somewhat supportive of these expectancy models, but conceptual and methodological problems remain. Unlike the content models, these expectancy models are relatively complex and difficult to translate into actual practice. They have also failed to meet the goals of prediction and control
过程理论关注的是进入动机的认知先行因素，以及它们相互关联的方式。Vroom、Porter和Lawler给出的理论、公平理论和归因理论都属于这一类。这些理论为工作动机提供了更为合理的解释。Vroom的期望模型以及Porter和Lawler提供的扩展和改进有助于解释重要的认知变量以及它们在工作动机过程中如何相互关联。波特-劳勒模型还特别关注绩效与满意度之间的重要关系。越来越多的研究文献在某种程度上支持这些预期模型，但概念和方法问题仍然存在。与内容模型不同，这些预期模型相对复杂，难以转化为实际实践。他们也未能达到预测和控制的目标
Motivation Theory 1 - Adam's Equity Theory of Work Motivation 动机理论1-亚当的工作动机公平理论
The theory explains that a major input into job performance and satisfaction is the degree of equity or inequity that people perceive in work situations. Adam depicts a specific process of how this motivation occurs.
该理论解释说，工作绩效和满意度的主要输入是人们在工作环境中感受到的公平或不公平程度。亚当描述了这种动机发生的具体过程。
Inequality occurs when a person perceives that the ratio of his or her outcomes to inputs and the ratio of a relevant other's outcomes to inputs are unequal.
当一个人意识到他或她的结果与投入的比率以及相关的其他人的结果与投入之间的比率不相等时，就会出现不平等。
Our Outcomes < Other's Outcomes = Inequity (under-rewarded) 我们的结果<他人的结果=不公平（回报不足）
Our Inputs Other's Inputs 我们的投入 其他的投入
Our Outcomes = Other's Outcomes = Equity 我们的结果=其他人的结果=公平
Our Inputs Other's Inputs 我们的投入 其他的投入
Our Outcomes > Other's Outcomes = Inequity (over-rewarded) 我们的结果>其他人的结果=不公平（过度奖励）
Our Inputs Other's Inputs 我们的投入 其他的投入
Both the inputs and the outputs of the person and the other are based upon the person's perceptions, which are affected by age, sex, education, social status, organizational position, qualifications, and how hard the person works, etc. Outcomes consist primarily of rewards such as pay, status, promotion, and intrinsic interest in the job. Equity sensitivity is the ratio based upon the person's perception of what the person is giving (inputs) and receiving (outcomes) versus the ratio of what the relevant is giving and receiving. This cognition may or may not be the same as someone else's observation of the ratios or the same as the actual situation.
个人和其他人的投入和产出都基于个人的认知，这些认知受年龄、性别、教育程度、社会地位、组织地位、资历以及工作努力程度等因素的影响。公平敏感性是基于个人对其给予（投入）和接受（结果）的感知与相关给予和接受的比率的比率。这种认知可能与他人对比率的观察相同，也可能与实际情况不同。       
If the person's perceived ratio is not equal to the other's, he or she will strive to restore the ratio to equity. This striving to restore equity is used as the explanation of work motivation. The strength of this motivation is in direct proportion to the perceived inequity that exists.
如果一个人的感知比率与另一个人的不相等，他或她将努力恢复公平比率。这种努力恢复公平的做法被用来解释工作动机。这种动机的强度与存在的不公平现象成正比。
Research suggests that individuals engage in illegal behaviors to maintain equity in relationships, either with their employing organization or with other people (Greenberg, 1990).
研究表明，个人从事非法行为以维护关系中的公平，无论是与雇佣组织还是与其他人。       
The theory was later expanded with the concept of "Organizational Justice". Organizational justice reflects the extend to which people perceive that they are treated fairly at work. It identified three different components of justice: distributive (The perceived fairness of how resources and rewards are distributed), procedural (The perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions) and interactional (The perceived fairness of the decision maker's behavior in the process of decision-making). (Copanzano, Rupp, Mohler and Schminke, 2001).
该理论后来被扩展为“组织正义”的概念。组织公正反映了人们认为自己在工作中受到公平对待的程度。它确定了正义的三个不同组成部分：分配性（对资源和奖励如何分配的感知公平）、程序性（对用于分配决策的过程和程序的感知公平性）和互动性（对决策过程中决策者行为的感知公平度）。。
Critiques:评论
Equity theory is descriptive and it reflects much of our everyday experience. As a theory however equity is only partial in analysis and as a predictor. There are many societal and institutional variables (inequalities) that we all navigate. The theory ignores people's natural resilience, their competitiveness, selflessness and selfishness, their ethical dilemmas in decision-making and their passions.
公平理论是描述性的，它反映了我们的日常经验。然而，作为一种理论，公平在分析和预测中只是部分的。我们都面临着许多社会和制度变量（不平等）。这一理论忽视了人们的自然韧性、竞争力、无私和自私、决策中的道德困境和激情。       
It does not adequately explain interactions in close relationships such as marriage or "emotional labor" - where we may provide care to others at a burdensome cost of declining personal well-being and self-denial. Norms of equity and reciprocity are often discounted in close and romantic friendships or where there are deep family bonds.
它不能充分解释婚姻或“情感劳动”等亲密关系中的相互作用——在这种关系中，我们可能会以个人幸福感下降和自我否定为代价向他人提供照顾。在亲密和浪漫的友谊中，或者在有深厚的家庭纽带的地方，公平和互惠的标准常常被打折。
In the social exchanges of business, causal, or stranger relationships, there may be more of a dominant assumption that inputs are offered with the expectation of a like response. There is more of a formal contract of tangible and intangible reward. A promise unfulfilled, without proper reciprocity incurs a debt of honor. A promise is broken. In our community, obligations of reciprocal response operate. We are expected to apply the Golden Rule and to help where we can - an act ably demonstrated by "the Parable of the Good Samaritan".
在商业、因果关系或陌生人关系的社会交往中，可能有更多的主导假设，即提供投入时期望得到类似的回应。更多的是有形和无形报酬的正式合同。如果没有适当的互惠，承诺得不到履行，就会招致荣誉债务。诺言被打破了。在我们的社区中，相互回应的义务起作用。我们被期望应用黄金法则，并尽我们所能提供帮助——这一行为被“好心人的寓言”巧妙地证明了。
Social exchange theory assumes rational, calculated action involving an expected pay-off. We do not always act rationally. Many will not be as selfish as rational action may suggest. Indeed our reward may be the inner glow of respecting oneself and living to one's own values. Such altruism, albeit self-referential, does not sit easily under the assumptions of the "rational, economic-person" model.
社会交换理论假定理性的、经过计算的行动涉及预期的回报。我们并不总是理性行事。许多人不会像理性行动所暗示的那样自私。事实上，我们的回报可能是尊重自己并按照自己的价值观生活的内在光芒。这种利他主义，尽管是自我参照的，但在“理性、经济人”模型的假设下并不容易。
Implications 意义
It is necessary to pay attention to what employees' perceive to be fair and equitable. For example: In my company, one of my colleagues was assigned to a project that required him to work during non business hours frequently. He worked three days at the office and two days at home in a week for a month and half. This caused others to start working from home during business hours.
有必要关注员工对公平和公正的看法。例如：在我的公司，我的一位同事被分配到一个项目，要求他经常在非工作时间工作。他每周在办公室工作三天，在家工作两天，持续了一个半月。这导致其他人在工作时间开始在家工作。
Allow employees to have a "voice" and an opportunity to appeal. Organizational changes, promoting cooperation, etc. can come easier with equitable outcomes.
让员工有“发言权”和上诉机会。组织变革、促进合作等可以更容易地实现公平的结果。
Management's failure to achieve equity could be costly for the organization. For example: One of my technically team members was not very competent. He took double the time to complete any give work when compared to the others. Management failed to take any action; instead the others were given more work. Eventually, even the competent workers took it easy to restore equity causing project delays.
管理层未能实现公平对组织来说可能是代价高昂的。例如：我的一个技术团队成员不是很能干。与其他人相比，他花了两倍的时间完成任何赠与工作。管理层未能采取任何行动；相反，其他人得到了更多的工作。最终，即使是有能力的工人也很容易恢复公平，导致项目延误。
Motivation Theory 2 - Vroom's Expectancy Theory of Motivation:动机理论2-Vroom的动机期望理论
Expectancy theory provides a framework for analyzing work motivation, which is eminently practical. It provides a checklist of factors to be considered in any managerial situation and it points to the links between the relevant factors and the direction, which these factors tend to follow in their interrelationships. (Tony J. Watson, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986).
期望理论为分析工作动机提供了一个框架，非常实用。它提供了在任何管理情况下需要考虑的因素清单，并指出了相关因素与方向之间的联系，这些因素在相互关系中往往遵循这些方向。
Expectancy theory holds that people are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes. It can be used to predict motivation and behavior in any situation in which a choice between two or more alternatives must be made. (Kreitner R. & Kinicki A., Mcgraw Hill, 7th Edition). Vroom gave the following equation of Motivation:
预期理论认为，人们被激励以产生预期结果的期望组合的方式行事。它可以用来预测任何情况下的动机和行为，在这种情况下，必须在两个或多个备选方案之间做出选择。Vroom给出了以下动机方程式：
Motivation (M) = Valence (V) x Expectancy (E) 动机（M）=价值（V）x期望（E）
Valence stands for the preference of an individual for a particular outcome. Thus, when an individual desires a particular outcome the value of V is positive. On the other hand when the individual does not desire a certain outcome, the value of V is negative.
Valence代表个人对特定结果的偏好。因此，当个人期望特定结果时，V值为正。另一方面，当个人不希望某个结果时，V值为负值。
The value of expectancy ranges between zero and one. When a certain event will definitely not occur the value of E is zero. On the other hand when the event is sure to occur the value of E is one.
期望值介于0和1之间。当某个事件肯定不会发生时，E的值为零。另一方面，当事件确定发生时，E的值为1。
Since its original conception, the expectancy theory model has been refined and extended many times. The better know of all is the Porter-Lawler model. Although conventional wisdom argues that satisfaction leads to performance, Porter and Lawler argued the reverse. If rewards are adequate, high levels of performance may lead to satisfaction. In addition to the features included in the original expectancy model, the Porter-Lawler model includes abilities, traits, and role perceptions.
自最初的概念以来，期望理论模型已被多次改进和扩展。最为人熟知的是波特-劳勒模型。尽管传统的观点认为满意会带来绩效，但波特和劳勒的观点恰恰相反。如果奖励足够，高水平的表现可能会带来满意。除了原始预期模型中包含的特征外，波特-劳勒模型还包括能力、特质和角色感知。
Critiques:评论
Vroom's theory does not directly contribute to the techniques of motivating people. It is of value in understanding organizational behavior. It clarifies the relation between individuals and the organizational goals. The model is designed to help management understand and analyze employee motivation and identify some to the relevant variables. However, the theory falls short of providing specific solutions to the motivational problems.
The theory also does not take into account the individual differences based on individual perceptions nor does it assume that most people have the same hierarchy of needs. It treats as a variable to be investigated just what it is that particular employees are seeking in their work. Thus the theory indicates only the conceptional determinants of motivation and how they are related.
Vroom的理论对激励人们的技术没有直接贡献。它对理解组织行为有价值。它阐明了个人与组织目标之间的关系。该模型旨在帮助管理层理解和分析员工动机，并识别一些相关变量。然而，该理论没有为动机问题提供具体的解决方案。             
该理论也没有考虑到基于个人认知的个人差异，也没有假设大多数人有相同的需求层次。它将特定员工在工作中寻求的东西视为一个变量进行调查。因此，该理论只指出了动机的概念决定因素以及它们之间的关系。
Research studies have confirmed that the association of both kinds of expectancies and valences with effort and performance. The motivated behavior of people arises from their valuing expected rewards, believing effort will lead to performance, and that performance will result in desired rewards.
The expectancy theory explains motivation in the U.S. better than elsewhere and therefore may not be suitable for other regions.
研究证实，两种期望和效价与努力和表现的关联。人们的积极行为源于他们对预期回报的重视，相信努力会带来绩效，而绩效会带来期望的回报。             
预期理论比其他地方更好地解释了美国的动机，因此可能不适用于其他地区。
Implications 意义
This theory can be used by the managers to: 管理者可以利用这一理论
Determine the primary outcome each employee wants.确定每个员工想要的主要结果。
Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals.确定实现组织目标所需的绩效水平和类型。
Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible.确保达到所需的性能水平。
Link desired outcomes and desired performance.将期望的结果与期望的绩效联系起来。
Analyze the situation for conflicting expectations.分析预期冲突的情况。
Make sure the rewards are large enough.确保奖励足够大。
Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.确保整个系统对每个人都公平。
Motivation Theory 3 - Maslow's Theory of Hierarchy of Need:动机理论3-马斯洛的需求层次理论
Maslow believed that within every individual, there exists a hierarchy of five needs and that each level of need must be satisfied before an individual pursues the next higher level of need (Maslow, 1943). As an individual progresses through the various levels of needs, the proceeding needs loose their motivational value.
马斯洛认为，在每一个个体中，都存在着五种需求的层次结构，在个体追求下一个更高层次的需求之前，每个层次的需求都必须得到满足（马斯洛，1943）。当一个人在不同层次的需求中前进时，过程需要失去他们的激励价值。
The basic human needs placed by Maslow in an ascending order of importance can be summarized and shown as below: 马斯洛按重要性升序排列的人类基本需求可以概括如
The desire to become what one is capable of becoming.渴望成为一个人能够成为的人。
These are the needs to be held in esteem both by oneself and by others.这些都是自己和他人都需要尊重的。
These are the needs to belong and to be accepted by various groups.这些都是属于不同群体并被不同群体接受的需要。
These are the needs to be free of physical danger. The safety needs look to the future.这些都是没有身体危险的需要。安全需要着眼于未来。
These are the basic needs for sustaining human life itself, such as food, water, warmth, shelter, and sleep.这些是维持人类生命本身的基本需求，如食物、水、温暖、住所和睡眠。
Maslow in his later work (Maslow, 1954) said: 马斯洛在他后来的作品中说：
Gratification of the self-actualization need causes an increase in its importance rather than a decrease.自我实现需求的满足导致其重要性的增加而不是减少。
Long deprivation of a given need, results in fixation for that need.长期剥夺某一特定需求会导致对该需求的固执。
Higher needs may emerge not after gratification, but rather by long deprivation, renunciation or suppression of lower needs.更高的需求可能不是在满足之后出现的，而是在长期的剥夺、放弃或压制更低的需求之后出现的。
Human behavior is multi-determined and multi-motivated.人类的行为是多决定、多动机的。
Critiques:评论
Part of the appeal of Maslow's theory is that it provides both a theory of human motives by classifying basic human needs in a hierarchy and the theory of human motivation that relates these needs to general behavior. Maslow's major contribution lies in the hierarchical concept. He was the first to recognize that a need once satisfied is a spent force and ceases to be a motivator.
马斯洛理论的一部分吸引力在于，它通过将人类的基本需求按等级分类，提供了人类动机理论，也提供了将这些需求与一般行为联系起来的人类动机理论。马斯洛的主要贡献在于等级观念。他是第一个认识到需求一旦得到满足就是一种消耗的力量，不再是一种动力的人。       
Maslow's need hierarchy presents a paradox in as much as while the theory is widely accepted, there is a little research evidence available to support the theory.
马斯洛的需求层次提出了一个悖论，尽管该理论被广泛接受，但有少量研究证据支持该理论。
It is said that beyond structuring needs in a certain fashion Maslow does not give concrete guidance to the managers as to how they should motivate their employees.
据说，除了以某种方式构建需求之外，马斯洛并没有就如何激励员工向管理者提供具体指导。
Implications:意义
The need hierarchy as postulated by Maslow does not appear in practice. It is likely that over fulfillment of anyone's particular need may result in fixation for the need. In that case even when a particular need is satisfied a person may still engage in the fulfillment of the same need. Furthermore, in a normal human being, all the needs are not always satisfied entirely. There remains an unsatisfied corner of every need in spite of which the person seeks fulfillment of the higher need.
马斯洛假设的需求层次在实践中并未出现。很可能，过度满足任何人的特定需求都会导致对需求的固执。在这种情况下，即使某一特定需求得到满足，一个人仍可能参与满足同样的需求。此外，在一个正常的人身上，所有的需求并不总是完全得到满足。尽管人们寻求满足更高的需求，但每个需求都有一个未被满足的角落。
A person may move on to the next need in spite of the lower need being unfulfilled or being partly fulfilled.
一个人可以继续下一个需求，尽管较低的需求没有得到满足或部分得到满足。
Conclusion 结论
No single motivation theory can suffice in today's workplace. Each motivational theory has its pros and cons. A theory may get the highest performance from an employee but may not from another employee.
在当今的工作场所，没有一种激励理论是足够的。每种动机理论都有其利弊。一种理论可能会从一名员工那里得到最高的绩效，但可能不会从另一名员工那儿得到。
The organization's workplace has changed dramatically in the past decade. Companies are both downsizing and expanding (often at the same time, in different divisions or levels of the hierarchy). Work is being out-sourced to various regions and countries. The workforce is characterized by increased diversity with highly divergent needs and demands. Information technology has frequently changed both the manner and location of work activities. New organizational forms (such as e-commerce) are now common. Teams are redefining the notion of hierarchy, as well as traditional power distributions. The use of contingent workers is on the rise and globalization and the challenges of managing across borders are now the norm. These changes have had a profound influence on how companies attempt to attract, retain, and motivate their employees.
在过去十年中，该组织的工作场所发生了巨大变化。公司正在缩小规模和扩大规模（通常同时在不同的部门或层级中）。工作正在外包给各个地区和国家。劳动力的特点是多样性增加，需求和要求高度不同。信息技术经常改变工作活动的方式和地点。新的组织形式（如电子商务）现在很普遍。团队正在重新定义层级的概念，以及传统的权力分配。临时工的使用正在增加，全球化和跨国管理的挑战已成为常态。这些变化对公司如何吸引、留住和激励员工产生了深远的影响。
Yet we lack new models capable of guiding managers in this new era of work. As management scholar Peter Cappelli notes, "Most observers of the corporate world believe that the traditional relationship between employer and employee is gone, but there is little understanding of why it ended and even less about what is replacing that relationship" (Cappelli, 1999). I believe that the existing work motivation and job performance theories are inadequate to cater to the present era of such diverse workforce. New theories of motivation are required to commensurate with this new era.
然而，在这个新的工作时代，我们缺乏能够指导管理者的新模式。正如管理学者彼得·卡佩利所指出的那样，“企业界的大多数观察家都认为，雇主和雇员之间的传统关系已经消失，但人们对这种关系的结束原因知之甚少，更不知道是什么在取代这种关系”。essay作者认为，现有的工作动机和工作绩效理论不足以适应当今多元化劳动力的时代。需要新的动机理论来适应这个新时代。本站提供各国各专业留学生Essay代写或指导服务，如有需要可咨询本平台。