经济学留学作业：国际贸易分析

国际市场

国际贸易的重要性

国家之间贸易的原因
 

：从商品/服务销售额外的收入

：通过从其他国家海外销售赚取来的钱

：所有国家生活质量的提高
 

外贸=世界上不同国家之间的商品/服务的购买和销售

进口=从其他国家买入—资金流出

出口=卖至其他国家—资金流入

有形贸易=商品的进口与出口

无形贸易=服务的进口与出口（旅游业，交通，保险等等）
 

比较成本的原则
 

气候因素和自然资源的差异使得国家必须通过贸易从而获得他们自己不能生产的商品
专业化和分化的商品，他们都有一个相对优势（生产成本低）从其他生产比较便宜的国家进口商品

贸易的平衡（贸易逆差）=分辨国家进出口的价值

有利—当出口超过进口（盈余已创建）

不利—当进口超过出口（赤字已创建
）

The International Market 

 

The importance of international trade 

 

The reason countries trade 

：additional income from sale of goods/services. 

：selling overseas bring in money to by from other countries. 

：quality of live of all countries involved can be improved. 

 

foreign trade = buying and selling of goods /services between different counties in the world 

Import = bought from other country – outflow of funds 

Export = sold to other country – inflow of funds 

Visible trade = import and export of goods 

Invisible trade = import and export of services (tourism, transport, insurance…) 

 

principle of comparative costs: 
 

Difference between climate or natural resources  countries have to trade in order to obtain goods which they cannot produce themselves 

 specialisation and differentiation in commodities for which they have a comparative advantage (low production costs) 

 import commodities from countries where production is comparative cheaper 

 

Balance of trade (trade gap) 
 

= records the value of countries’ imports and exports 

favourable – when exports exceed imports ( surplus has been created) 

adverse (unfavourable) – when imports exceed exports ( deficit has been created) 

 

Balance of payment 
 

visibles = goods 

invisibles = services 

 

= a statement of the difference in total value of all payments made to other countries and the total payment received from them 

 includes visibles and invisibles 

 shows weather the country is making a profit or a loss in its dealings with other countries 

 

favourable – net inflow of capital (country has earned more than it spent) 

adverse – net outflow (country has spent more than it has earned) 

 

current account = records trade in goods and services 

capital account = records flows for investment and saving purposes 

 

Correcting a balance of trade deficit 

temporary measures: 

• borrowing from International Monetary Fund (IMF) 

• obtaining loans from abroad 

• drawing on gold and currency reserves 

• selling off foreign assets 

 

!!!increase in exports!!! 

 government: offering incentives to firms (tax relief, special credit facilities, subsidies) 

 

Devaluation 

= lowering the value of currency in relation to other currencies 

 makes imported goods more expensive and exports cheaper 

 

Deflation 
 

 if people’s income or its spending power is reduced they will buy fewer products (imports) 

 wage rise controls, restricting credit and hire purchase, increasing interest rates, increasing taxes 

 

Exchange control 
 

= Central bank places a limit on the amounts of foreign currency hat can be bought 

supply of domestic currency on the market is reduced  raising in the price of the currency 

 

Import control 
 

= use of tariffs and quotas 

tariff = a duty or tax on imports to increase their costs and discourage purchase 

quota = numerical limit on the numbers of a commodity which can be imported 

 

Methods of selling abroad 
 

selling in foreign counties but not overseas: 

• advertising in foreign journals or circulating catalogues #p#分页标题#e#

• brochures and other sales literature 

• contact agent of foreign buyers visiting the homecountry 

• export house 

 as merchant – export house actually buys the goods and market the goods, accepting the risk of loss 

 as agent – export house market goods on behalf of the seller 

 

Selling from a overseas base 
 

• make direct contact with potential customers 

• employ an agent who is already based overseas 

• trade fairs and exhibition provide a useful meeting pace for buyers and sellers 

 

Difficulties faced by exporters 
 

• Language 

• Differences in measurements – weights, sizes… 

• Suitability – regulation, safety standards… 

• Import regulations 

• Damage – during the long journey to the customer 

• Packaging – need to be stronger than for hometrade 

• Transport – difficult to organise 

• Documentation and payment agreements 

• Agent – may be necessary to find 

• Payment defaults – customers are more difficult to sort out 

 

Exchange rate fluctuation 
 

Exchange rates = prices at which one country’s currency is bought and sold (exchanged) 

 are changing daily, and even during the day 

 a rise in value results in a fall in the cost of imports and a rise in the price of exports 

 a fall in the value results in a fall in the costs of exports and a rise in the prise of imports 

 

ways of offset currency fluctuation: 

• forward buying = buying currency at a fixed rate for sometime ahead 

• single currency (euro in EU) 

 

Aids to exporters 
 

Department of trade 

= branch of the Department of Trade and Industry  sub-departments 

publishes journals aimed on information, helping and encouraging export 

assessment of potential overseas markets for products 

provision of detail of current import regulations abroad 

advise on financial standing of potential overseas customers 

introductions to prospective customers 

issue export licenses when necessary 

organisation /assistance of international trade exhibitions of fairs #p#分页标题#e#

ECGD (Export Credits Guarantee Department) 

 

Export Credits Guarantee Department - ECGD 
 

 helping on non-profit basis 

• Insurance – against non payment of debts by foreign importers 

- importer being unable to pay 

- export restrictions by government 

- political restraints on payment 

• Grants or low interest loans 

 

Consular officials 

• government officials who are based overseas collect information to exporters and give local help to traders while abroad 

• foreign officials based in home country are also a source of advise and information 

 

Banks 
 

• short and long-term loans 

• financial advice 

• arranging documentary credit 

 

Free trade restrictions 

Subsidies 

a government may give finance towards the cost of the home-produced product 

 

Tariffs 

= tax or custom duty imposed on imported goods to raise the price of foreign goods 

 

Quotas 
 

= a limit on the quantity of a product allowed to enter the country during a year 

 an import license must be obtained before goods can be imported 

 

Exchange controls 

= restrictions on the availability to foreign currency to importers 

Embargo 

= a straightforward government ban on trading between two countries 

 

Reasons for trade restrictions 
 

• to protect home producers – because they are newly formed industries or important for national securities 

• to resist dumping – means selling goods at a loss abroad 

• to safeguard jobs 

• to correct a balance of payments deficit – reduce imports to get rid of the deficit 

 

Free trade 

= when no traffis, quotas or other restrictions to trade exist 

 

The World Trade Organisation (WTO) 

= the only international organisation dealing with global rules of trade between nations 

= has more than 130 members, accounting 90% of world trade 

 main functions: ensure that trade flows as smoothly and freely as possible 

• administrating trade agreements 

• acting as a forum for trade negotiations 

• settling trade disputes 

• reviewing national trade policies 

• assisting developing countries in trade policy issues (technical assistance, training programs) 

• cooperating with other international organisations 

 

 special agreements for developing or least-developing countries 

• longer time periods for implementing agreements and commitments 

• measures to increase trading opportunities 

• provisions requiring all WTO member to safeguard the trade interest of developing countries 

• support to help developing countries build the infrastructure for WTO work, handle disputes and implement technical standards 

 

GATT = General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 

= umbrella agreement for trade in goods 

 

The European Union 

= consists of a group of countries in Europe which have decided to join forces for their mutual benefit 

Developing : EEC = European Economic Community (Common Market)  later EC  EU 

 

Aims of the EU 
 

• to raise the living standards 

• promote freedom of movement of labour, capital and services 

• encourage close co-operation between member in matters of commerce, farming, finance, social services and legal systems 

• reduction of trade restrictions between members, and establishment of a common tariff policy to non-members 

• lasting peace and prosperity for all 

• trade freely with each other 

The Maastricht Treaty 

signed in February 1992 

provided for future cooperation and a review of the EU’s political, economic and cultural links 

 introduction of the euro on 1 January 1999 as single currency of the EU 

 introduction of the European Central Bank (ECB) – full responsibility for monetary policy, responsible for keeping inflation under control 

 

Treaty of Amsterdam 

signed in October 1997 

- to carry out further reviews of the working of the EU in preparation for the extension to new countries 

place employment and citizens’ rights at the heart of the Union 

sweep away the last remaining obstacles to freedom of movement and to strengthen security 

give Europe a stronger voice in world affairs 

make Union’s institutional structure more efficient with a view to enlarging the Union #p#分页标题#e#

 

Trade and cooperation agreements 

European Development Funds  technical assistance is provided to help develop economies into market economies

- special links with Latin America, Mediterranean and Asia, … 

 

Organisation of the EU 

The Commission – proposes new laws, manages common EU policies and acts as a guardian; is based in Brussels and deals with all policy areas from agricultural to overseas development 

 

The European Parliament – 626 members who meet every week in Strasbourg 

 

Council of Ministers – based in Brussels, the ultimate decision-making body 

 

European Court of Justice – safeguards the principles and laws of the community, sits in Luxembourg, one judge from each member country 

 

Other Customs Union 

CARICOM = Caribbean Community 

around the world there are lot communities similar to the EU