Effective

Learning Service

References and

Bibliographies

References and Bibliographies

A M E M B E R O F

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 1

Academic writing is special in an age of rapid communication. Most assignments in

higher education require you to slow the tempo and carefully explore and test out

ideas, either for their own sake or in relation to real or hypothetical situations.

This requires you to, not just present and describe ideas, but to be aware of

where they came from, who developed them - and why. Ideas, theories, models,

practices are often shaped by the social norms, values and practices prevailing at

the time and place of their origin and the student in higher education needs to be

aware of these influences. Referencing plays a role, therefore, in helping to locate

and place ideas and arguments in their historical, social, cultural and geographical

contexts.

Referencing can also help you to find your own voice in assignments, by helping

you construct essays and reports that project the way you see or perceive things,

but supported by a body of evidence that strengthens your opinions - and

converts them into arguments.

Education needs ideas, arguments and perspectives to thrive, but these have to

be tested rigorously and subjected to the critical scrutiny of others. This is done

by researching, preparing and presenting work into the public domain; a

formidable task for any writer or commentator, and one that can take years

sometimes to achieve.

Referencing is then, also about respecting and honouring the hard work of writers

and commentators . by acknowledging them in your assignments.

Colin Neville

Effective Learning Service

PREFACE

The Effective Learning Service at the School of Management is part of a UK

government funded LearnHigher project, which involves collaboration between

16 UK institutions of higher education.

The aim is to develop a resources network to enable students to gain access to

high quality learning support material produced by UK universities.

The Effective Learning Service at the School of Management has been selected to

develop resources on referencing to share with students. A website on

referencing is currently being developed, and a book on this topic: The Complete

Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism, by Colin Neville, is due to be

launched by The Open University Press in August 2007.

More information can be found on the LearnHigher project at:

www.learnhigher.ac.uk

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REFERENCES and BIBLIOGRAPHIES

It is an expected academic practice that students will refer to (or cite) the#p#分页标题#e#

sources of ideas, data and other evidence in written assignments.

This is not just practice for traditions sake; it is done for valid academic reasons.

There are four main reasons related to your academic studies why referencing is

important:

1. to support your arguments and give credibility to the information you

present in assignments;

2. to enable your tutors to check the accuracy and validity of the evidence

presented;

3. to enable your tutors and other interested readers to trace the sources you

cite and to use the same evidence for their own purposes;

4. to avoid the accusation of plagiarism.

As mentioned in the preface, referencing is also a way of acknowledging the hard

work that goes into the research, preparation, writing and revision of academic

texts. Accurate referencing is also one way of giving indirect thanks to this

invisible and invaluable effort and achievement.

More pragmatically, it also shows a tutor you have, at least, read some of the

sources listed on a reading list!

And last, but probably not least from a student perspective, accurate and

intelligent referencing will enhance a good essay and contribute to the marks you

gain. Selection of relevant evidence and accurate referencing is an important

element in the marking criterion.

This booklet will:

.. explain when to reference;

.. show you how to reference (using the Harvard Style adopted by the School of

Management);

.. give examples of different forms of referencing, including some of the less

common sources;

.. include two assignments to demonstrate referencing in action.

However, if you need help in referencing any source in any assignment, you can

contact the author of this booklet and Effective Learning Officer for the School:

Colin Neville, email: [email protected]

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CONTENTS PAGES

Section 1: GENERAL INFORMATION

Difference between references and bibliographies

What to reference

When to reference

Plagiarism

Types of referencing

Principles of referencing

Harvard Style of referencing

Section 2: FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

About citing page numbers

About using secondary sources

Citing an author published more than once in the same year

Citing non-English books

Punctuation and capitalisation in references

Undated sources

When to use multiple citations

Citations, quotations and the word count

Section 3: EXAMPLES OF CITATIONS and REFERENCING

Books

Journal articles, magazines, newspapers

TV/radio/video/audio-cassette/CD ROM

Government publications

Reports

Course manuals/lecture notes

Oral communication: interviews, telephone conversations, lectures#p#分页标题#e#

Unpublished sources

Standards and Patents

Legal documents

Cinema and theatre

Electronic sources (Internet, Email and other)

QUIZ

EXAMPLE REPORT (1)

EXAMPLE ESSAY (2)

ANSWER TO QUIZ

ENDNOTE

FURTHER READING and REFERENCES

4

5

6-9

10-13

14

15

16-19

20

21

22

23

23-24

24

25

25

26-28

29-31

32

33

34

35

36-37

38

39

40-43

44

45-51

52

53-59

60-66

67

68

69-71

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SECTION 1: GENERAL INFORMATION

WHATS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

REFERENCES AND A BIBLIOGRAPHY?

The terms References and Bibliography are often used

synonymously, but there is a difference in meaning between

them.

REFERENCES

References are the items you have read and specifically referred to (or cited) in

your assignment and your list of sources at the end of the assignment will be

headed References.

If you make a point of reading selectively, you will usually make use of everything

you read and then refer directly to it in your assignment.

In that event, it will be perfectly correct to just have a References list instead of

a Bibliography; it will certainly not go against you, and many tutors prefer you

to just have a references section, rather than a bibliography. This enables them

to quickly find in your list of references the source you cited and, if necessary,

check the validity of it for themselves.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Strictly speaking, a bibliography is a list of everything you read in preparation for

writing an assignment, whether or not you referred specifically to it in the

assignment.

A bibliography will, therefore, normally contain sources that you have cited in

your assignment and also those you found to be influential, but decided not to

cite. A bibliography can give a tutor an overview of which authors have influenced

your ideas and arguments even if you do not specifically refer to them.

However, dont be tempted to include items you have not read in order to impress

the tutor. If you, for example, include an item you havent actually read, the

tutor may challenge you why you have not directly referred to a particular author,

or apparently not been influenced by their work in your assignment!

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You can cite references taken from a range of sources, e.g.

.. Internet

.. Notes supplied, and verbal comments made, by a lecturer

.. CD databases

.. Books written by a single-author#p#分页标题#e#

.. Multiple edited books with contributions from a range of different authors

.. Reference books of all types

.. Legal documents

.. Articles from journals

.. Reports of various kinds, e.g. official reports from government departments,

university working papers, etc

.. Newspaper articles

.. Papers presented at conferences

.. Radio/TV/videos/audio cassette/CD Roms

.. Interview transcripts

.. Email correspondence

.. Cinema films and theatre plays

In short, most information that has been written, recorded, filmed or presented in

some way to others can potentially be used.

The important thing is to choose reliable sources that give credence, authority

and support to the ideas and arguments that you present. Your tutor will suggest

a range of reliable sources, and this will be your starting point, but you will also

be expected to look beyond the recommended reading and to search out relevant

information for yourself.

You will find, however, that recommended books and other sources will prove .

because of the accurate referencing that has gone into them . to be rich veins of

additional information. If you read a particular chapter as a starting point for

research into an assignment topic, often the references or bibliography will point

you in the right direction of other relevant reading.

WHAT TO REFERENCE

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You should cite your sources of evidence in assignments in the following

situations:

1. To give the reader the source of tables, photos, statistics and diagrams

included in your assignment. These may be items directly copied or which have

been a source of collation for you

2. When describing or discussing a theory, model or practice associated with a

particular writer. This would include the names of authors who coined words to

label particular phenomena or situations

3. To give weight or credibility to an argument presented by you, or supported by

you, in your assignment

4. When giving emphasis to a particular idea that has found a measure of

agreement and support amongst commentators

5. To inform the reader of sources of direct quotations or definitions in your

assignment.

6. When paraphrasing another persons idea that you feel is particularly

significant or likely to be a subject of debate; this can include sources of

definitions you use in assignments.

7. and to avoid plagiarism.

1. To Inform the Reader of Sources of Tables, Photos, Statistics

or Diagrams Presented in Your Assignment (either copied in their

original form or collated by you)

Example:

In Britain, the proportion of employees on temporary contracts rose only

marginally between 1992 and 1998, from 5.9 per cent to 7.4 per cent, and has#p#分页标题#e#

since fallen to 7.1 per cent in 2000 (Office for National Statistics 2000).

WHEN TO REFERENCE

To reference or not to reference,

that is the question

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2. When Describing or Discussing a Theory, Model or Practice

Associated with a Particular Writer

3. To Give Weight or Credibility to an Argument Presented in Your

Assignment

4. When Giving Emphasis to a Particular Idea That Has Found a

Measure of Agreement and Support Amongst Commentators

Example:

The term instrumental or operant conditioning is associated with the

American Psychologist, B.F. Skinner (1956), and describes a process of

shaping behaviour by a variety of means that encourage and reinforce

desired behaviour, or discourage unwanted behaviour.

Example:

However, it can be argued that the corrosive social effects of workers having to

manage increasing workloads outweigh these extrinsic advantages. Handy

(1994, p.9), for example, suggests that businesses prefer to recruit half as

many people, paid twice as well and producing three times as much, with a

destructive effect on the social lives of these core workers.

Example:

As the behavioural response of communication apprehension (CA) is to avoid or

discourage interaction with others it is not surprising that CA has been linked to

feelings of loneliness, isolation, low self esteem and the inability to discuss

personal problems with managers or others (Daly and Stafford 1984; Mc

Croskey, Daly, Richmond and Falcione 1977; Mc Croskey and Richmond 1987;

Richmond, 1984; Scott and Rockwell 1997).

(Note: The student cites five sources - all much saying the same thing - to

emphasise and give credibility to an important point summarised in the

assignment. The use of multiple authors can add weight to summary, particularly

if the idea is a controversial one. However, citing six authors would be the

maximum for this purpose, and citing two or three is a more usual practice).

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5. To Inform the Reader of Sources of Direct Quotations or

Definitions in Your Assignment

Example:

Pearson (1995) however, argues that a search for a solution to ethical dilemmas

using the methods of moral philosophy has failed (p.3). He asserts that any

approach to business ethics must take full account of the business perspective and

an appreciation of business boundaries, albeit with account to the changing nature

of these.

(Note: If the quote is taken from a printed book or journal, you always need to

include the page number so the reader can go straight to that page to find it.

Lengthy quotations (over two lines) should be indented in your assignment. This#p#分页标题#e#

means you compress the quotation, italicise it and create a one-tab margin that

distinguishes it from your own text, as per the example below. You dont need to

use quotation marks in an indented quotation).

Example of indented quotation:

Robert Reich (2001) has argued that pay is proportionate to the skill you offer in

the labour market:

If you have been in a job thats rote or routineor your job can

be done by computerized machines or by software over the Internet .

youre likely to be paid less than you used to be paid for doing it(p.32)

Reich argues that education and training can be the way forward for people

trapped in a cycle of low-skill, low-pay jobs.

USING QUOTATIONS

Try to keep quotations to a minimum in your

assignments. They can be used to good effect when:

. you feel they make a particular point.

For example, colloquial language can often be

used for contrast and effect in an academic

assignment - where the style of writing is

necessarily more cautious, formal and detached

. you want to analyse or challenge the quotation in

question

. you feel the quotation supports your own

argument or point of view

. you want to add interest or impact to an

introduction or conclusion.

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6. When Paraphrasing Another Persons Idea or Definition that You

Feel is Particularly Significant or Likely to be a Subject of Debate

7. One of the Reasons for Referencing is to Avoid Accusations of

Plagiarism; so read on

Example:

We all perceive the world around us in ways that are often unique to us

through a series of personal filters and we construct our own versions of

reality (Kelly 1955).

(Note: In this example, the student paraphrases an idea that Kelly

originally outlined in 1955. The inverted commas around construct suggest

this is a significant word used by Kelly to describe a key concept). By citing

the source the student is, in effect, saying this is Kellys idea; I am just

paraphrasing it, and thus avoids accusations of plagiarism.

HOWEVER, YOU DONT NEED TO REFERENCE:

. Information drawn from a variety of sources to summarise what has happened

over a period of time and when the summary is unlikely to be a cause of

dispute or controversy; for example:

The growth in call centres in the West was encouraged by economic and

technological factors. From the late 1970s the growth of the service sector,

focused the attention of large organisations on communication with customers in

more cost effective and streamlined ways. This growth of a service sector

economy connected with advances in telecommunications and changes in working

practices in Western companies. The logic of call centres was that a centralised#p#分页标题#e#

approach and rationalisation of organisational operations would reduce costs,

whilst producing a standard branded image to the world.

. When pulling together a range of key ideas that you introduced and referenced

earlier in the assignment.

. When stating or summarising generally undisputed facts circulating freely in

the public domain and when there is unlikely to be any significant disagreement

with your statements or summaries of these.

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Plagiarism is about copying or acquiring the work of others

and, directly or indirectly, claiming it to be your own

independent and original work.

There are, however, no internationally agreed academic norms

or conventions on what constitutes plagiarism, and this can

cause difficulties for some international students who may

have encountered different practices in their home countries.

In Britain, there is a particularly strong emphasis given to respecting

the authorship of ideas and honouring the hard work that goes

into researching, preparing and writing academic texts.

An academic monograph or textbook, for example, can take an author several

years to research and write. Consequently it is widely felt in Britain that to copy

from a book without acknowledging the source is a violation against the authors

ownership of ideas and therefore morally wrong. For this reason plagiarism is

treated seriously and blatantly plagiarised work is usually disqualified.

Each university develops its own interpretation of plagiarism, but in general there

are four main forms of plagiarism:

.. Copying or acquiring another persons work, including the work of another

student (with or without their consent), and claiming or pretending it to be

your own;

.. Presenting arguments that use a blend of your own and the directly copied

words of the original author, with or without acknowledging the source;

.. Paraphrasing another persons work, but not giving due acknowledgement

to the original writer or organisation publishing the writing, including work

on Internet sites;

.. Colluding with other students and submitting identical or near identical

work.

However, it is also important that students are aware of their universitys own

interpretation of plagiarism, as each institution may place emphasis on a

particular feature of plagiarism.

(Scarfe 1982)

PLAGIARISM

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For example, Bradford Universitys policy on academic integrity states:

A dissertation, thesis, essay, project or any other work which is not

undertaken in an examination room under supervision but which is submitted

by a student for formal assessment must be written by the student and#p#分页标题#e#

in the students own words, except for quotations from published

and unpublished sources which shall be clearly indicated and

acknowledged as such

If you copy work for assessment, it defeats the whole purpose of the

exercise. If we mark work you have copied, it is not your progress that we

are evaluating, but that of somebody else. And if it is someone elses work,

our comments will not help you improve and fulfil your own potential.

Honestly producing work which is your own best effort, and having it subject

to the scrutiny of others is the most important aspect of academic integrity, a

duty which the university demands of all of its members, staff and students

alike.

Copying assessments breaches academic integrity in a fundamental way and

constitutes a grave breach of regulations and as such the University would

take necessary disciplinary action. Copying is simply a form of cheating -

pretending something is yours when it is not. At its most blatant, it is

generally known as plagiarism, the most serious act of deception anyone in

academic life can be accused of. But even if there is no deliberate intention

to deceive, copying is unacceptable academic practice.

(University of Bradford 2003)

You will see from the first paragraph of this statement that the University is

particularly concerned that students should use their own words as far as is

possible to summarise or paraphrase what they have read.

Of course, there will inevitably be some overlap between the writers words and

your own . particularly when describing places, dates, specific features and the

names of organisations.

However, you should make a determined effort to use your own words to sum up

what you have read. The act of doing this encourages a deeper level of

understanding as, in the process, you are forced to think hard about what is

actually said and meant by the authors.

Lecturers marking course work can recognise plagiarism easily. This applies

particularly when passages are copied straight from books, or cut and pasted from

the Internet, with no acknowledgement of their source. Lecturers will usually

recognise the work of established writers in the subject area concerned and there

will be stylistic differences in writing between the original author and a students

work that an experienced lecturer will detect. The School of Management is now

systematically using electronic scanning systems to highlight plagiarism in

students writing.

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How to Avoid Plagiarism

Applying, analysing, criticising or quoting other peoples work is perfectly

reasonable and acceptable providing you always:

.. attempt to summarize or restate in your own words another persons work,#p#分页标题#e#

theories or ideas and give acknowledgement to that person. This is usually

done by citing your sources and presenting a list of references;

or

.. by always using quotation marks (or indenting lengthy quotations in your

text) to distinguish between the actual words of the writer and your own

words. Once again, you would cite all sources and present full details of these

in your list of references.

Summarising in Your Own Words

Here is an example of how this can be done.

The extract below is a paragraph taken from a journal article. This is followed by

two student summaries of the extract. As mentioned earlier, it is impossible not

to use some of the words used in the original article, particularly when referring

to the subjects of the discussion. But the aim should be to try and put the idea or

argument into your own words as best you can.

Original Extract

(From Yang, D. and Clarke, P. (2004) review of the current intellectual property

system in China, International Journal Technology Transfer and

Commercialisation, vol. 3, No. 1, pp.12-37; reprinted with permission.

For thousands of years, outsiders have regarded China as a xenophobic

country. However, the stereotypes have been changing since China opened

up its economy in 1979. Now, the encouragement of foreign direct

investment (FDI) and international technology transfer (ITT) lies at the

heart of economic relations between foreign countries and China. The

international flows of capital, information and technology facilitate the

economic growth of China and the influence of multinational enterprises

(MNEs). The boom in FDI and ITT has brought to the fore the issue of

intellectual property rights (IPRs) as a major topic in the economic

development of China. Although a historical review shows that the

germination of the concept of IPRs in China goes back more than 100 years,

in reality no effective system of intellectual property protection (IPP) existed

until very recent times.

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Two Summaries

In these extracts, the students try to present the information taken from the

extract in their own words, although some repetition of primary and key words is

inevitable. They also cite the original source (Yang and Clarke 2004).

Summary A

This essay is about intellectual property (IP) in general and about the

situation in China today, and about Chinas relationship with the West in

relation to this issue. For centuries China has been regarded by the outside

world as a rather closed and insular country. However, Yang and Clarke

(2004) argue that now things are changing, and particularly so since 1979,

when China decided to open up its economy. Since then, foreign direct#p#分页标题#e#

investment (FDI) and international technology transfer (ITT) are important

connecting links between China and the rest of the world. Now the flows of

capital, information, technology and the influence of multinational

enterprises MNEs have stimulated the Chinese economy. But these

developments have also caused attention to focus on the issue of

intellectual property rights (IPR). Although the concept of IPR goes back

more than a hundred years, there has been no effective system of

intellectual property protection (IPP) until recently.

Summary B

China has been regarded, up to now, by the outside world, as a rather

closed and xenophobic country. However things are changing. Since 1979,

China has loosened, opened and stimulated its economy by foreign direct

investment (FDI), international technology transfer (ITT) - and from the

influence of multinational enterprises (MNEs). However, these developments

have also focused attention on the issue of intellectual property rights (IPR)

and until recently in China there has been no effective system of intellectual

property protection (IPP) (Yang and Clarke 2004).

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In Britain, there are four main styles of referencing in use within higher education,

shown below in descending order of use.

1. Author/Date (Harvard and APA Styles)

The author/date (Harvard) approach to referencing tends to be the style that is

adopted by the majority of university departments. This is the style adopted by

the School of Management, University of Bradford, for all its courses, except

Law - which uses a combination of Harvard and a Running-note style - see below.

The Harvard Style involves giving a partial reference (a citation) in the body of

your assignment, often, but not always, enclosed within brackets e.g. (Levin

2004), and then giving full information of the source at the end of the

assignment in a references or bibliography list. Sources are always listed

alphabetically by authors last name, or name of organisation.

The American Psychological Association (APA) have developed a referencing style

similar to Harvard and this is adopted by many psychology and related disciplines

in the UK. There are minor differences between Harvard and APA, but it is

important that students asked to adopt APA style are aware of these (go to

http://www.apastyle.org/ for more information).

2. Running-Note Style

This involves inserting a raised number or superscript in the assignment, for

example, 1 for the first source, 2 for the second source, and so on. One source

may have many different numbers attached to it, depending on how often it is

referred to in the assignment. These numbers connect with citations at the#p#分页标题#e#

bottom of the page (footnotes), or at the end as endnotes, which is headed Notes

and References. The full references are shown against the numbers in the

numerical order they appeared.

3. Vancouver-Numeric Style

This also involves a numbering system, but numbers appear in brackets, e.g. (1)

in the main body of the assignment. However, unlike the numbered-note style,

the same number can be used on any number of occasions when referring to the

same source. The sources are then listed in full at the end, under References,

but listed in the numerical order they appeared, rather than in alphabetical order.

4. Author/Page (or MLA) Style

This is similar to Harvard Style. However, it uses page numbers instead of the

year in the citation, so refers to the author and specific page where the

information referred to in the source can be found. Only a few departments

within universities recommend this particular style, as the author/date (Harvard

Style) can include page numbers in the citations if required.

TYPES OF REFERENCING

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All styles of referencing are underpinned by five principles:

1. the principle of Intellectual Property: Western concepts of plagiarism are

based on an economic model of capitalism and the notion that someone can

own an idea if the idea has been presented in a fixed way, e.g. published or

presented in the public domain;

2. the principle of Access: to help readers quickly locate original documents

referred to in a text;

3. the principle of Economy: the references should include as much information

as necessary to help readers locate them. But they should also be presented

in such a way as to reduce the need for lengthy explanations in the text and

speed up the process of reading;

4. the principle of Standardization: referencing should be presented in a way

that allows everyone to understand the meaning;

5. the principle of Transparency: referencing should include easily understood

abbreviations that are recognizable to many people, for example, the use of

ed. for editor.

(Walker and Taylor 1998)

PRINCIPLES OF REFERENCING

Golden Rule of Referencing

The Golden Rule of referencing is to give the reader enough information to

help them easily and quickly find the source you cited.

If they wanted to look at your source and check it out for themselves,

could they find it easily with the source information you have given?

The first principle, above, establishes a rationale for all referencing styles

and 2 . 5 below establish a framework for referencing practice within these

styles.

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The basic idea of the Harvard Style is to:

1. use citations (a partial reference) in the text

2. list all references in full at the end of an assignment

1. Use Citations in the Text

In the text of your assignment you give a partial reference (called a citation).

This is the last name of the author, followed by the year of publication. If you

dont have the authors name, you use the name of an organisation, newspaper,

journal, or whatever the main source is.

Citing the source as you write involves giving a partial or shortened

reference (last name of author(s) and year of publication) in the main body of

your written assignment and then giving full details of the source in full at the end

of the assignment in a References or Bibliography section. You can abbreviate

lengthy organisational names; see example below (YHES 1998).

Example: Citations

Although Handy (1994) has argued that education is the key to economic success

for individuals, organisations and nations, a majority of adults in the UK have yet to

be convinced or persuaded of this argument. In 1999 only forty per cent of adults

had participated in any sort of formal learning in the previous three years. Of these,

a significant majority was from social class groups A, B and C. Only a quarter of

adults from semi-skilled or unskilled work backgrounds had involved themselves in

formal education (Tuckett 1999). The consequences for people without

qualifications who lose their jobs are often serious. A study of long-term

unemployed people in Yorkshire found that sixty-one per cent had no educational

qualifications, and a significant number of these had special learning needs

(YHES 1998). There would appear to be a link too, between lack of qualifications,

poor health and a disengagement from participation in political or civic life, and

could aggravate the situation of unemployment for the people concerned (Hagen

2002).

THE HARVARD STYLE OF REFERENCING: THE BASIC IDEA

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Citations in the Text

The examples shown in Section 3 of this booklet are enclosed in brackets, e.g.

(Munger and Campbell 2002). However, citations in the text can be introduced in

a variety of ways.

For example:

There would appear to have emerged by the end of the twentieth

century two broad approaches to the management of people within

organisations (Handy 1996).

This introduces a point of view and the student points to Handy as a

major proponent of this perspective.

But this is not the only way of citing the author. The student could have

also cited Handy, as follows:

Handy (1996) argues that by the end of the twentieth century two

broad approaches to the management of people within organisations#p#分页标题#e#

had emerged.

or, (if wanting to include Handy as an exemplar of this proposition):

Some commentators, for example, Handy (1996), have argued that

by the end of the twentieth century two broad approaches to the

management of people within organisations had emerged.

or

It can be argued, (for example, see Handy 1996), that two

approaches to the management of people within organisations had

emerged by the end of the twentieth century.

or

Charles Handy, amongst others, has argued that by the end of the

twentieth century two broad approaches to the management of

people within organisations could be observed (Handy 1996).

There is no one right way of citing authors. It depends on your writing

style at any particular point in the assignment. The important point is to

give credit to authors who have influenced your ideas and arguments.

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List References in Full at the End of an Assignment

The way the full reference details are presented in this booklet is based on advice

from the following sources: British Standards Institution (BSI) guidelines:

Recommendations for citing and referencing published material, BS 5605 and

BSI guidelines 6371 Recommendations for citation of unpublished documents;

and the guidelines suggested by Xia and Crane in their book Electronic Styles: a

handbook for citing electronic information (1996).

In the References or Bibliography section at the end of an assignment the basic

format for listing references in the Harvard Style is as follows:

1. Start with the last name(s), followed by initials of the author(s), contributor,

editor, producer or speaker. If you dont have the name of an author, start

with the name of the originator. This can be an organisation name, e.g. BBC,

or name of a website, e.g. Bized.

2. This is followed by the year of publication; put this in brackets. This should

be easy to find on printed documents. However, in some older books it may

be missing. In this event, put (no date), or (n/d). With Internet sources, look

for a year the item was placed on the site, or in the absence of this, when the

site was last updated (the year in question), or if unsuccessful with either of

these two, the year you looked at the information.

3. This is followed by the title of the source. The main source is usually

emphasised in some way, e.g. underlined or italics. The main source would

be, for example, the title of a book, name of the magazine, journal or

newspaper, broadcast production source, video or CD-Rom etc. Whichever

mode of emphasis you choose- underlining or italics - keep it consistent

throughout. The pattern in this booklet is to emphasise main sources by the

use of italics.#p#分页标题#e#

4. If your source is a chapter from an edited book, you then give the name or

names of the editors of the book, followed by the title of the edited book

(see example on page 27).

5. In most printed items you would give details of the publisher. You first give

the name of the town or city where the source was published, followed by the

name of the publisher.

6. In the case of a journal article, you finish with the reference details of

volume, edition/issue number (if shown) of the journal and the page numbers

of where the article can be found.

(There may be variations on this general sequence for some sources; see

examples in this booklet).

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Effective Learning Service 19

At the end of the assignment the references are given in alphabetical order, by

last name of the author(s), in full. The references for the citation example shown

on page 16 would be listed, as follows:

References

Hagen, J. (2002). Basic Skills for Adults. Birmingham: The Guidance Council.

Handy, C. (1994). The Empty Raincoat. London: Hutchinson.

Tuckett, A. (1999) Whos Learning What? The Guardian 18/5/1999, p. 13.

YHES: Yorkshire and Humber Employment Service (1998). Survey of Clients Aged

25+ Unemployed for Two Years or More. London: Department for Education and

Employment.

Referencing electronic sources follows the same basic format as described on

page 18, although the URL is given instead of publisher . see section 3.12 of

this booklet for referencing electronic sources). The specific date you looked

at the information is also included, e.g. (accessed 05/12/2005).

If you use an abbreviation in the citation, you would start with this

abbreviation in the reference, then immediately explain it: YHES:

Yorkshire and Humber Employment Service.

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Effective Learning Service 20

Single Topic Books

Many single subject books have a main or dominant message, perspective or

argument that forms the core or essence of the book.

Authors build their arguments around these cores by presenting evidence and

examples to back up their perspectives or by rebutting counter-arguments. If you

wish to offer evidence in your assignment that summarise these essential core

perspectives, then a page number is not necessary.

However, if you use and include a quotation from the book, you will need to

include a page number in the citation:

Ron Todd of the Transport and General Workers Union commented, weve

got three million on the dole and another 23 million scared to death (quoted

by Bratton 1992 p.70).

You can also include a page number in the citation, if you are referring to some

specific detail that is secondary or incidental to the books core point or#p#分页标题#e#

perspective and which would be hard to find without a page number. These might

include, for example:

.. Statistics

.. Illustrative examples

.. Comments made by research subjects

.. Author comments not directly related to the main topic

You would also give a page number if you are using the book as a secondary

source . see next page.

Other Books and Sources

The same comments for books on a single topic apply for other sources. If the

reader will struggle to find precisely what you looked at without the benefit of

page numbers in the citation, then include them.

SECTION 2: FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT

REFERENCING

Should I include page numbers from books

or other sources in the citations?

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 21

Secondary Referencing:

This is called secondary referencing. Typically, you will be reading a chapter in

a book and the author will mention an interesting piece of research done by

someone else, or provide a useful fact for your assignment, then give a citation,

naming another writer or writers.

You have two choices in this situation. You can find and read the source

mentioned yourself and check out the accuracy of the summary given by the

author you read . this is the recommended option - and then you can refer

directly to this author, as you have read the source yourself.

However, if you find it difficult to find or gain access to the primary source, and

where you are confident the secondary source author is reliable and accurate in

the way he or she has paraphrased or quoted the original author and when you

do not need to go into any great depth of analysis on what that primary author

has written, you can use these secondary sources.

For example, in the book Licensed to Work by Barrie Sherman and Phil Judkins

(1995), there is a reference to another writer, Ivan Illich, who refers to shadow

work: tasks in society that were once the responsibility of extended families and

close communities.

If Sherman and Judkins book was used as a secondary source, your citation

must make this clear. So you could write:

Ivan Illich (1981), as summarised by Sherman and Judkins (1995 p.121)

has suggested that shadow work..

or

Illich (1981) has suggested that shadow work: tasks in society were once

the responsibility of extended families and close communities (in Sherman

and Judkins, 1995 p.121).

or

Sherman and Judkins in their book (1995 p.121) refer to the work of Ivan

Illich (1981), who coined the term shadow work to suggest that .

The full reference must give details of the source you looked at, e.g.

Sherman, B. and Judkins, P. (1995). Licensed to Work. London: Cassell.#p#分页标题#e#

The author of the book I read mentions

another author. I want to refer to this other

author. How do I reference this?

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 22

If anyone wanted to read Ivan Illichs book, they could then look at Licensed to

Work and find the full reference details there. It is not strictly necessary to give

the year of Illichs book. However, it can be useful to the reader to give this

detail, as there may be more than one Illich book listed in the primary source.

You use letters a, b, c and onward in your citations to differentiate between the

different sources; for example:

The term communication apprehension was coined by James

McCroskey (1976a) and is defined as.

Later in the assignment you might want to refer to same author, different source,

same year again, e.g.

Studies suggest that high CA can impact on a persons behaviour,

relationships, the perceptions of others, occupational choice and

employment opportunities and education (McCroskey 1976b; McCroskey

and Richmond 1979

In the references/bibliography, you would then link the two different sources to

the citation:

McCroskey, J. C. (1976a). The Effects of Communication Apprehension on

Nonverbal Behavior. Communication Quarterly, 24, 39-44.

McCroskey, J. C. (1976b). The Problems of Communication Apprehension

in the Classroom. Speech Communication Journal, 4, 1-12, [online]

How do I cite and reference books or

other sources from an author that has

published more than once in the same

year?

Same Author . Different Books . But Similar Points Made in Each One

You might on occasions want to refer to two or more books that an author has

written in a single citation . as the same argument may have been presented by

the author on more than one occasion. You can cite the author with the earlier

works listed first, e.g. (Handy 1976; 1984; 1994).

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 23

You should give details of the source you looked at, which will include the title and

author, in the language concerned.

However, it may be appropriate to add an English translation (in brackets)

immediately after, particularly if the book was originally published in non-

European characters, e.g. Chinese, Arabic.

The British Standard recommendation is for no punctuation within the brackets

containing a citation, e.g. (Handy 1994), although if a number of authors are

cited, you would need punctuation to separate out the names, e.g. (Mc Croskey,

Daly, Richmond and Falcione 1977)

The BSI recommendations also suggest sentence stops after each distinct part of

the reference, e.g.

Handy, C. (1994).#p#分页标题#e#

The Empty Raincoat: Making Sense of the Future.

London: Hutchinson.

Example:

Handy, C. (1994). The Empty Raincoat: Making Sense of the Future. London:

Hutchinson.

I read a book in my own (non-English)

language. Do I give you an English translation

of the title?

What punctuation and capitalisation style

should I use in referencing?

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 24

Although British Standards does not show the year in brackets, it has become an

accepted style in referencing to enclose the year of publication within round

brackets: Handy, C. (1994).

Titles

The spelling of the original title should be retained, e.g. Americanisation of words

in titles should be retained.

Capitalisation

Follow the capitalisation shown in the original document.

For example, many book titles in social science, humanities and business

disciplines capitalize the first and last words and all words except articles (e.g.

the; an); prepositions (e.g. on; to; up; in; between - and other words

indicating spatial or temporal positions); and co-ordinate conjunctions (e.g.

and; but; or; for; so; yet)

Examples:

Turabian, K.L. (1973). A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and

Dissertations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

But you may find that titles in science disciplines and in most newspaper or

magazine articles start with a capital and use lower case for subsequent title

words, e.g.

Saigol, S. (2005) Gift shoppers set to spend 亽150m daily online. Financial Times,

12/12/2005, p.4.

The best advice, therefore, is to copy the title as it is shown in its original form.

Older books may not show a date of publication. In that event, use the

abbreviation n.d. (no date) in your citation and in the reference. You may find

other sources, e.g. videos, without apparent production dates, and the

abbreviation can be used with other undated sources.

The source has no date. How can I

reference this?

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 25

A number of authors can be cited in support of particularly key or important

points that you want to make or to support contentious statements or arguments

presented by others.

See the example shown on page 7 of this booklet (example 4).

Yes. If you include quotations in your assignment you take ownership of them.

You have decided to include quotations for emphasis or to make a particular

point, so you must include them in your word count.

Citations in the text e.g. (Handy 1994) are also included in the word count.

Are quotations and all the citations in#p#分页标题#e#

the text counted in the word count"?

I have noticed that some writers cite more

than one author occasionally in support of

a particular argument or point of view.

When should I do this?

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 26

3.1 REFERENCING PRINTED BOOKS

SINGLE TOPIC (MONOGRAPH) BOOKS

The last name(s) of the author(s) is listed first, followed by the initial letters of

first names; followed by the year of publication in brackets; followed by the book

title (in italics or underlined . but be consistent whichever you decide); then list

the location (town or city) of the publisher, and finally the name of the publisher.

Examples:

Citation: (Handy 1994)

Reference:

Handy, C. (1994). The Empty Raincoat: Making Sense of the Future.

London: Hutchinson.

Citation: Saunders et al (2003)

Reference:

Saunders, M., Lewis, P., and Thornhill, A., (2003). Research

Methods for Business Students, 3rd edition. Harlow: FT Prentice Hall.

If a document has one or two authors (or originators) of equal

status, both their names should be given in the citation. If there are

more than two, the name of the first should always be given, but

the names of the others may be omitted and replaced by the term

et al (meaning, and others) e.g. (Burchell et al 1999).

Some study skills textbooks suggest that you use the term et al

when there are more than three authors. However, as et al means

and others, the British Standards Institution (BS5605) recommend

it should be used when there are more than two authors (BSI

1990).

et al?

SECTION 3: EXAMPLES OF REFERENCING

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 27

REFERENCING A CHAPTER FROM AN EDITED BOOK

Some books are not written by a single author, but contain

articles or chapters written by different authors. These are

edited collections, sometimes called readers and have one or

more editors.

If you make reference to an author in an edited collection, you need to give the

last name, initials, date of publication, title of chapter (inverted commas),

name(s) of editor(s), title of book (in italics or underlined), then location of and

name of publisher, and page numbers.

Examples:

Citation: (North et al 1983)

Reference:

North, D., Leigh, R., and Gough, J. (1983) Monitoring

Industrial Change at the Local Level: Some Comments on

Methods and Data Sources, in M. Healey (ed.) Urban and

Regional Industrial Research: The Changing UK Data Base,

Norwich: Geo Books, pp.111-29.

Citation: (Moorhouse 1984)

Reference: Moorhouse, H.F. (1984) American

Automobiles and Workers Dreams, in K. Thompson (ed.)#p#分页标题#e#

Work, Employment and Unemployment, Milton Keynes:

Open University Press, pp.80-89.

Heres et

al again!

(see page

26).

The initials of the author of the chapter

follow after the authors last name.

However, the initials of the editor(s) come

before the last name(s) (as recommended

in British Standards BS5605, 1990).

As you are

referring to a

specific

chapter in a

book, give the

page numbers

of the chapter

in the

reference.

To see if you

need to

mention the

page numbers

in the

citation, see

comments on

page 20.

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Effective Learning Service 28

REFERENCING FROM ENCYCLOPAEDIAS and OTHER PRINTED

REFERENCE BOOKS

Avoid an over-reliance on encyclopaedias for information. As a first

choice, use try and information from monograph, edited books or

peer-reviewed academic journals.

Encyclopaedias: It is unlikely that the name of an individual writer

or contributor will be shown, but if one is shown, start with this: family

name first, then the writers initials. However, if no writer is shown,

start with the title of the encyclopaedia, then give brief details of the

entry referred to in the assignment, then add volume, the place of publication and

name of publisher and then the page numbers.

In dictionaries or other reference books, if the name of the editor(s) or

compiler(s) is shown, start with this, then give details of the book in the usual

way. If no editor is shown, start with the title of the reference book.

Abbreviations can be used in citations to shorten long titles (see examples 3 and 4

below) although the full title must be given in the reference.

Titles of the books are in italics or underlined.

1. Citation: (New Encyclopaedia Britannica 1975)

Reference: New Encyclopaedia Britannica (1975) Goshen,

volume 4. Chicago: Helen Hemingway Benton Publisher, p.642.

2. Citation: (Leibster and Horner 1989)

Reference: Leibster, L., Horner, C. (1989) Definition: Elasticity

of Supply, The Hamlyn Dictionary of Business Terms: an A-Z

Guide to the World of Commerce and Economics. London:

Hamlyn Publishing Group, p.84.

3. Citation: (ALC 2000)

Reference: ALC: Asias 7,500 Largest Companies (2000),

Quoted Companies. London: ELC International, p.90.

4. Citation: (DMCPSF 2004)

Reference: DMCPSF: Directory of Management Consultants and

Professional Service Firms in the UK (2004), 15th edition, Centre

for Management Creativity. Peterborough: Kennedy Information

Inc, p.220.

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

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3.2 REFERENCING JOURNAL ARTICLES, MAGAZINES and#p#分页标题#e#

NEWSPAPERS

ACADEMIC JOURNAL ARTICLES

Where to find the information you need on a printed academic journal.

Start with the last name of the author of the article, initials of author, year of

publication (in brackets), title of article (in inverted commas), name of the journal

or magazine (in italics or underlined), volume number and part number (if

applicable) and page numbers.

References to journal articles do not include the name of the publisher or place of

publication, unless there is more than one journal with the same title, e.g.

International Affairs (Moscow) and International Affairs (London).

Example:

Citation: (Bosworth and Yang 2000).

Reference:

Bosworth, D. and Yang, D. (2000). Intellectual Property Law, Technology Flow

and Licensing Opportunities in China. International Business Review, vol. 9,

no. 4, pp.453-477.

(The abbreviations, vol., no. and pp can be omitted, but for clarity and to

avoid confusing the reader with a mass of consecutive numbers, it is suggested

they are included).

Authors names

(In the reference,

the last name(s) of

authors are given

first, then their

initials, see below)

Year of publication

Article Title

Journal title

Volume & part: the

number of years

the journal has

been published

and number of

parts so far.

Pages of article

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Effective Learning Service 30

MAGAZINES

The same sequence of referencing academic journals applies to magazines with a

general readership.

.. If there is an author, start with his or her last name, followed by their initials

.. Year of publication (in brackets)

.. If there is no author name, start with the originators name (as

recommended by British Standards); this would be the name of the

magazine (in italics)

.. The title of the article (you can include this in inverted commas)

.. If you started with the authors name, give the title of the magazine at this

point (in italics, or underlined)

.. Then full details of the specific date the magazine was published

.. Page numbers

Examples (with and without authors from the same magazine):

Citation: (Rigby 2005)

Reference:

Rigby, R. (2005). Crossover Consultants. Management Today,

November 2005, pp.30-35.

Citation: (Management Today 2005)

Reference:

Management Today (2005) Business Manners, Working

From Home, November 2005, p.12.

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

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NEWSPAPERS

The order of referencing is:

.. Name of writer, if shown

.. (if name of writer not given, start with the name of the Newspaper (in italics)#p#分页标题#e#

.. Year of publication

.. Title of article (you can include this in inverted commas)

.. Name of newspaper (in italics or underlined), if not shown as the first item

.. Day of publication

.. Details of any special identifying feature, e.g. review sections, supplements

.. Page number

.. Short news items without authors name in newspapers can be referenced by

giving full details in the citation only. If it is a local paper, it is helpful to

include the city of origin, e.g. (Bradford Telegraph and Argus 21/06/2004,

p.4).

.. If the article appeared originally in printed form, but is being presented to

you on the Internet, via Metalib/Proquest, or on a CD-Rom, you can

reference this as if it was a printed source in front of you providing you

are sure that the article is unabridged or unamended (it will usually say if

it has been altered or amended).

Examples:

1. Citation: (Saigol 2005)

Reference:

Saigol, L. (2005). Gift shoppers set to spend 亽150m daily online.

Financial Times, 12/12/2005, p.4.

2. Citation: (Financial Times 2005)

Reference:

Financial Times (2005). Duke does U-turn over spin-off sale, 12/12/2005,

p.14.

3. Citation: (Skypala 2005)

Reference:

Skypala, P. (2005). Shooting the rapids of pension liabilities, Financial

Times: FTfm (Fund Management), 12/12/2005, p.3.

4. Citation: (Financial Times 2005)

Reference:

Financial Times (2005) Helping fashion to embrace IT. FT Companies &

Markets supplement, 12/12/2005, p.24.

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 32

3.3 TV/RADIO/VIDEO/AUDIO CASSETTE/CD ROM

SOURCES

Start with the name of any author, e.g. for a CD-ROM or audio

cassette, if applicable. If not applicable, start with a production

source (see examples 1 and 5) then give information on the year of

production, and any specific transmission dates. The information

medium, e.g. CD-ROM, video cassette, radio, television, should

always be specified. Titles of any video, CD-Rom or audio cassette should be in

italics or underlined. In the case of radio and television programmes, the

production source, e.g. BBC, should be shown in italics or underlined.

If someone has been interviewed (see television programme example below), and

the interview forms the basis for the citation and reference, the reference

should start with the name of the person interviewed.

The important thing is that you give the reader full information on the medium,

programme or production in question, particularly its title, date of broadcast or

production, and the production source.

Examples:

1. Radio Programme

Citation: (BBC Radio 4 2003)

Reference: BBC Radio 4 (2003). Analysis, broadcast 12/5/2003.#p#分页标题#e#

2. Television Programme

Citation: (Porrit, J. 1991)

Reference: Porrit, J. (1991). Interview by Jonathan Dimbleby, Panorama,

BBC 1 Television, broadcast 18/03/1991.

3. Audio CD

Citation: (Roberts 2000)

Reference: Roberts, R. (2000). Passive Music for Accelerated Learning

(audio-CD). Carmathen: Crown House Publishing.

4. CD-ROM

Citation: (Ziegler 1992)

Reference: Zeigler, H. (1992) The Software Toolworks Multimedia

Encyclopedia (version 1.5), Software Toolworks (CD-ROM). Boston: Grolier.

5. Video Tape

Citation: (TV Choice Productions nd)

Reference: TV Choice Productions (nd). The Presentation: a Guide to

Effective Speaking (video tape). Bromley: TV Choice Productions.

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

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3.4 REFERENCING GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS

Start with the name of the writer or organisation sponsoring

the publication (if shown) or, if not shown, title of article (in

inverted commas), the title of publication (in italics or

underlined), followed by date of publication, place of publication,

name of official publisher, finally the volume or edition date number,

table or page number.

Examples:

Government sponsored reports often have long titles but become commonly

known by the name of the Chairman of the committee responsible. You should

always give the full official title of the report in a reference, but you can give the

popular title too, if you wish. You can also use an abbreviation in the citation, but

you must give the full title in the reference; see example below:

Parliamentary Reports require a little more detail, but the basic principle is the

same; see example below.

Citation: (Office for National Statistics 2000)

Reference:

Office for National Statistics (2000). Standard Occupational Classification

Volume 2: The Coding Index. London: The Stationery Office.

Citation: (Central Statistical Office 1990)

Reference:

Central Statistical Office (1990). Social Trends, 20. London: HMSO.

Citation: (UNWCED 1987)

Reference:

UNWCED: United Nations World Commission on Environment and

Development (1987). Our Common Future (Brundtland Report).

Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Citation: (House of Lords 1996)

Reference:

House of Lords (1996). Information Society: Agenda for Action in the

UK: Fifth Report of the Select Committee on Science and Technology,

session 1995-96. HMSO, 1996 (HL 1995-96 51).

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3.5 PRINTED REPORTS (including Company Annual Reports)

Annual Reports

Company annual reports often involve multiple authors and rarely show the name

or names of the compilers or editors. If they do, however, start with these. But if#p#分页标题#e#

not, start with the company name, then give the year, then full title (in italics or

underlined), section and chapter (if applicable) then page number.

Other

Other Reports

. Start with name of author (if shown): family name, then initials

. If no name of author, start with name of report

. Year of publication

. Full title of report, including sub-section or sub-title information (in italics or

underlined) and edition number

. Volume, sections, page number (if applicable)

. Place of publication

. Name of publisher

Citation: (Cable & Wireless 2002)

Reference:

Cable & Wireless (2003). Annual Report and Accounts 2003:

report of the independent auditors, p.35.

Citation: (Business Ratio Reports 2004)

Reference:

Business Ratio Reports (2004). Security Industry, edn. 26, section 4:

Performance League Tables: sales: 4-2. Hampton: Keynote.

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3.6 REFERENCING COURSE MANUALS/LECTURE NOTES

You can also refer to course manuals and lecture notes given to

you by teaching staff. These notes may be a primary source,

e.g. a summary or explanation written by a lecturer, or a

secondary source, where a lecturer is quoting what someone

else has said, or referring directly to a third person.

Examples of citing primary and secondary sources using teaching

notes supplied to you (imagine that the following extracts are taken

from an essay on marketing):

1. Primary

When choosing from the mix of promotional activities available to market a

product, the market objectives should be the main driving force. Low (2004)

has suggested four main questions: who is your target group? What do you

want them to do? When do you want them to act? And how much are you

prepared to spend to communicate with them?

2. Secondary

Marketing Communications has been defined as a process through which

an organisation enters into a dialogue with its various audiences. The

objective is to influence in a positive way a particular target audience in its

awareness, understanding and actions towards that organisation and its

products or services (Fill 2002, as cited in Low, 2004, p.2).

In both cases, the References section would give full details of Low, which is the

source for both these citations, i.e.

Low, C. (2004). Marketing Communications, from MA Course

Manual, 2004/5, p.2, University of Bradford, School of Management.

Regarding the second example (secondary source), you might want to go to the

main source, i.e. Fill, 2002, to look at the original to enable you to expand on the

definition presented or be critical of it. If you did do this you could then cite Fill

directly as a primary source.

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies#p#分页标题#e#

Effective Learning Service 36

3.7 REFERENCING WORD-OF-MOUTH (interviews,

telephone conversations and lectures)

Interviews

Face to face interviews you conduct for any project can be referenced, provided

you make available any interview notes, transcripts, completed interview

questionnaires or recordings made. These can be added, if required, as appendix

items (check with your tutor).

Start your full reference with the family name of the interviewee, initials, year of

interview, then state the purpose of the interview (italics or underlined), place of

interview, name of interviewer (this could be your own name), then date of

interview.

Telephone Discussions (including interviews)

A similar principle (about keeping notes or making a recording) and reference

sequence applies to telephone conversations:

. Name of person spoken to (family name, then initials)

. Year

. Medium (telephone conversation/interview)

. Subject of discussion (italics or underlined)

. Your name (or name of person speaking to subject)

. Date of conversation

Ensure you keep a written record of verbal discussions, otherwise your tutor has

no way of cross-checking points you make in assignments.

Citation: (Brown 2005)

Reference: Brown, J. (2005). Personal Interview (marketing survey for MA

project). GKN, Leeds, with Jim Clarke, 20/03/05.

Citation: (Edwards 2005)

Reference:

Edwards, R. (2005). Telephone interview re. SMEs and graduate

employment with Colin Neville, 13/12/2005.

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Lectures

. Start with name of lecturer: family name, then initials

. Year

. Medium (lecture) and details of lecture (italics or underlined)

. Module and course details, including academic year

. Place

. Exact date of lecture

Citation: (Neville 2005)

Reference:

Neville, C. (2005). Lecture on academic writing, Self-development module,

first year undergraduate course 2005/6, University of Bradford, School of

Management, 25/11/2005.

You could also reference published interviews in journals, magazines or

elsewhere. The sequence for this would be:

. Name of person interviewed (last or family name first, then initials)

. Year of interview

. Title of interview

. Explanation of interview

. Interviewers name

. Title of publication (in italics or underlined)

. Publication details, including full date and page number

Example:

Citation: (Turner 2005)

Reference:

Turner, N. (2005). Turners secret: the short-haul factor. Interview with

Nigel Turner, BMIs new CEO, by Ben Flanagan. The Observer (Business

Section), 22/05/2005, p.18.

(See also television interviews, page 32).#p#分页标题#e#

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3.8 REFERENCING UNPUBLISHED SOURCES

The same basic format for Harvard referencing applies for referencing unpublished

sources: start with the name of the writer or speaker, year of dissertation,

conference title (in italics or underlined) of the document(s), talk, presentation

etc, name of conference or seminar (if applicable) and other information to locate

the material. In the case of archive material, this will be the name of the place

where the item is to be found.

Examples:

Unpublished MBA dissertation

Unpublished Conference Paper

Unpublished Archive Material

Citation: (Cooper 2003)

Reference: Cooper, T.E.J. (2003). Implementing Strategic Change in the

Recruitment Advertising/Employment Communication Industry. Unpublished

MBA Management Project, University of Bradford, School of Management

Library.

Citation: (Broadbent 2005)

Reference: Broadbent, M. (2005). Tackling Plagiarism: a Teaching and

Learning Perspective. Unpublished paper delivered at Conference: Tackling

Plagiarism. University of Hertfordshire, Business School, 22/03/05.

Citation: (Vickridge, 1918)

Reference: Vickridge, A. Correspondence of Alberta Vickridge 1917-1965, Box

2, letter to Vickridge from A. Christie, 12/02/1918. University of Leeds,

Brotherton Library.

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3.9 REFERENCING STANDARDS and PATENTS

Standards

In the full reference:

. Start with the issuing body, e.g. British Standards

. Year of publication (if the standard number incorporates the date of

publication, this can be omitted, as in the example below)

. Title (italics or underlined)

. The Standard number

Patents

The sequence in the full reference is:

. Name(s) of inventor(s) or patentee(s): family name(s) first, then initials

. Year of publication

. Title of patent (italics or underlined)

. Country of origin and serial number

. Date of application and date of acceptance

Citation: (British Standards 1990)

Reference:

British Standards. Presentation of theses and dissertations. BS4821:1990

Citation: (Lund-Anderson 2001)

Reference:

Lund-Anderson, B. (2001). Device for the damping of vibrators

between objects. US Patent 6296238. Appl. 24/06/1999. Acc.

02/10/2001.

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3.10 REFERENCING LEGAL DOCUMENTS

Students on law degree or related courses will learn a

referencing style that is particular to this subject, which is

usually the Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal Authorities

(OSCOLA). This is the style used by the Oxford University#p#分页标题#e#

Commonwealth Law Journal, who contributed to its

development. However, students on other courses, who

occasionally have to cite legal cases, may also find this section helpful.

OSCOLA style of referencing

More detailed information on the OSCOLA Style of referencing can be obtained

from the website of Faculty of Law, University of Oxford. Briefly though, the

OSCOLA referencing style is different to the Harvard style of referencing in that it

uses a raised or superscript numbers in the text of an assignment, combined with

footnotes. The numbers used in the text against evidence presented is then

connected with a footnote at the base of each page. You can use the Insert .

Reference . Footnotes facility on Microsoft Word to manage this for you. You

would also need to prepare a bibliography at the end of the assignment to present

an alphabetical overview of all the sources you had featured in your footnotes.

It is also different to Harvard referencing in the way it presents the full details

references in footnotes and bibliographies.

With books, for example, the first name or initials of the author(s) is presented

before the authors last name, without a stop or comma between them. Also, the

title is always in italics, and the edition, publisher, place of publication and date

are enclosed within brackets. Page numbers can be included, if relevant, as last

items in the reference. When there are more than three authors, just state the

first, followed by and others.

OSCOLA examples:

. D French, How to Cite Legal Authorities, (London: Blackstone, London 1996)

33-35

. P Loose and others, The Company Director (9th rev edn Jordans, Bristol 2006)

(Note: the book mentioned above, How to Cite Legal Authorities, is recommended

reading regarding citations and referencing for any student studying for a law

degree).

Reference essays and chapters in edited journals, as follows:

. D Cullen, Adoption . a (Fairly) New Approach, Child and Family Law

Quarterly (Oct 2005) 17 475, 486.

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A minimum of punctuation is used, and commas should be used only to stop

words running into each other. All words in the title should be capitalised, except

prepositions (of, by, which), articles (the, an, a) and conjunctions (and,

or).

G1. Case citation

Case citation is a frequent occurrence in law course assignments. You need to

include:

. names of the parties;

. year, in square or round brackets (see below discussion for when to do this);

. volume number;

. abbreviated name of the law report series;

. first page of the reference.

Case names should be italicised in assignments, e.g.#p#分页标题#e#

Murphy v Brentwood District Council [1990] 2 All ER 908

When referring to a case for the first time, give its full name exactly as it appears

in the report. In subsequent references a case can be referred to by a shortened

name, e.g. Murphy v Brentwood District Council, and can be referred to as the

Murphy case.

If you give the full details of the case in the text, you do not need to repeat the

information in a list of references.

Examples:

1. Campbell v Mirror Group Newspapers Ltd [2004] 2 All ER 995

2. Rees v United Kingdom (1987) 9 EHRR 56

You could, however, refer to part of the citation in the text, e.g. Campbell v Mirror

Group Newspapers, and give the full reference details in footnotes.

Square or round brackets?

Square brackets are used when the date is essential for finding the report. Round

brackets are used when the date is merely of assistance in giving an idea of when

a case was featured in law reports that have cumulative volume numbers.

Abbreviations?

The abbreviations in the examples shown above refer to All England Law Reports

(All ER) and European Human Rights Reports (EHRR). A full list of abbreviations

in the names of law reports and journals can be found at the Cardiff University

Cardiff Index to Legal Abbreviations website at

http://www.legalabbrevs.cardiff.ac.uk/searchabbreviation/

or from OSCOLA.

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Punctuation?

Use open punctuation . no stops after parts of the abbreviation, e.g. All ER (and

not All. E.R.)

Specific page references?

When a particular passage is being quoted or referred to, the specific page

references must be included, e.g.

Jones v Tower Boot Co Ltd [1997] 2 All ER 406 at 411

Judges name?

When the judges name is being quoted or referred to in a particular passage, the

judges name should be provided as part of the citation, e.g.

That was the opinion of Mackay LC in Pepper v Hart [1993] 1 All ER 42 at 47

Judges should be referred to in terms of Justice or Lords Justice, as appropriate,

e.g. Clark J; or Smith LJ. If referring to more than one High Court judge: Smith,

Clark and Brown JJ; or Smyth and Clarke LJJ if Lords Justice.

G2. UK Acts of Parliament (Statutes)

These are Acts passed by Parliament, which eventually receive royal assent and

become law. You would normally list the source in the full reference, as follows:

. title of Act and year;

. the part: pt, and section: s, and/or

. the schedule: sch, and section: s.

Example:

Citation: (Data Protection Act 1998)

Reference: Data Protection Act 1998. pt 1, s2.

Note: the year: 1998, does not appear in brackets in the reference, as the date is#p#分页标题#e#

part of the title.

For older statutes, the Oxford Standard suggests it can be helpful to give the

appropriate year of reign and chapter number, e.g. Crown Debts Act 1801 (14

Geo 3 c 90), meaning that the Act was given Royal Assent in the 14th, year of the

reign of George the Third, and was the 90th Act given Royal Assent in that

parliament, hence c 90).

G3. UK Bills

A bill is proposed legislation before Parliament. Bills are cited by their name, the

Parliamentary Session, the House of Parliament in which it originated and the

running order assigned to it, and any relevant sections or subsections. HC=

House of Commons; HL= House of Lords.

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Example:

Citation: (Identity Cards Bill 2004-5)

Reference: Identity Cards Bill 2004-5 HC-8, s 9(4).

G4. UK Statutory Instruments

These are orders and regulations linked to particular Acts and should be

referenced by name, date and serial number (where available).

Subsidiary words in long titles within the in-text citation may be abbreviated (see

example below), but the full title must be given in the reference.

Example:

Citation: (Telecommunications (LBP) (IC) Regulations 2000)

Reference: The Telecommunications (Lawful Business Practice) (Interception

of Communications) Regulations 2000.

G5. EC Legislation

European Community (EC) legislation (Regulations, Directives and Decisions), and

other instruments (including Recommendations and Opinions) should be

referenced by providing the legislation type, number and title, then publication

details from the Official Journal (OJ) of the European Communities. Be warned,

these references can be lengthy! Example:

Citation: (Commission Regulation 1475/95)

Reference:

Commission Regulation (EC) No 1475/95 of 28 June 1995 on the application of

Article 85 (3) [now 81 (3)] of the Treaty to certain categories of motor vehicle

distribution and servicing agreements Official Journal L 145, 29/06/1995 pp.

0025 . 0034.

The capital letter L in the example, i.e. Official Journal L, indicates the series

stands for Legislation; the C series contains EU information and notices, and the S

series contains invitations to tender (see Oxford Standard p.18).

(With thanks to Neil Carter, Law Librarian, School of Management Library for

allowing me to use his lecture notes in part of this section)

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3.11 REFERENCING CINEMA FILMS OR THEATRE PLAYS

Cinema films and theatre plays may also be referenced .

particularly to make social points or to give dramatic

examples of a particular theory in action.

For example, the 1957 film Twelve Angry Men makes an#p#分页标题#e#

effective point about the pressure in groups to conform to

the will of the majority. And the 1983 Tom Kempinski

play, Duet for One, vividly conveys the impact of physical

disability on the life of a professional person.

Film:

You start with the title of the film and year of production, then state the medium,

e.g. film, and then give the name of the director (or producer if director not

known); finally, give the name of the film studio and details of any video

recording currently available.

Play:

The scripts of plays are usually available in printed form so you should be able to

give details of the playwright and the publisher of the script. To reference plays,

start with the name of the playwright, then year of publication, title of play (italics

or underlined), state medium, e.g. play, then details of the Act, Scene and/or

page number, then publisher information.

Citation: (Twelve Angry Men 1957)

Reference: Twelve Angry Men (1957). Film directed by Sidney Lumet,

Hollywood: MGM Studios (available now on MGM Vintage Classics video

series).

Citation: (Kempinski 1983)

Reference: Kempinski, T. (1983). Duet for One. Play: Act 1, p.21. London:

Samuel French Inc.

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3.12 REFERENCING ELECTRONIC SOURCES

The Internet is a rich source of information for students. It is also, unfortunately,

the unregulated host to sites that have been created by their authors as arenas

for their ill-informed and biased opinions.

Reliable Internet sites can certainly be used and cited in assignments. But how

can you evaluate Internet sites?

Munger and Campbell (2002) and Rumsey (2004) suggest the following questions

asked of sites can help you evaluate the reliability of them:

Author/Purpose Content Design

.. Who is the author?

.. Why has this site

been established .

is it clear from the

introduction?

.. Is there a link to

the authors Email

address?

.. Does the author

have any academic

or professional

affiliation?

.. Who is the sponsor

of the site?

.. What is the sites

purpose?

.. Who is the

intended audience

for the site?

.. What are the

potential biases or

hidden agendas of

the site?

.. Were you

connected to this

site from a reliable

source?

.. How

comprehensive is

the site in its

coverage?

.. Is the site regularly

updated? When

was the site last

updated?

.. How are sources

referenced and

documented?

.. Are the links

provided working?

(a site that is not

being updated,

including the

hyperlinks, should#p#分页标题#e#

not be trusted)

.. On what basis are

links selected?

.. What is the

rationale for the

provided links to

other sites?

.. Is the site easy to

navigate and use?

.. Does the resource

follow good

principles of

design, proper

grammar, spelling

and style? If it does

not, beware!

.. Does the site

include

advertising?

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The basic principles of the Harvard Style apply for all electronic sources, e.g. if

there is the name or names of authors, start with these, then show year of

original publication, if shown (or date stamp of site if any is given), then a title of

article (if shown) in italics or underlined, or title of site followed by full details of

the website, and finally the date you gained or Accessed the information from

the site.

Important:

You dont have separate lists of www sites in your References or Bibliography

sections. Internet sites are incorporated into one alphabetical list of references.

Also, you dont give the www address as your citation in the text of your

assignment! Instead, you put the name of an author, or the source organisation.

if the URL is ridiculously long , for example, stretching over three or more lines,

you can give the homepage address and then give a series of keyword search

words to take the reader to the relevant screen.

EXAMPLE A: (Online Article or Report)

You see from example A above, that in the reference the last names of the

authors are shown, followed by their initials, year report was published, title of

article, followed by the full website address and then the date the site was

Accessed: the date you visited the site.

EXAMPLE B: (Government Statistics Online)

Citation: (Introna et al 2003)

Reference:

Introna, L., Hayes, N., Blair, L., and Wood, E. (2003). Cultural

Attitudes Towards Plagiarism.

http://www.jiscpas.ac.uk/apppage.cgi?USERPAGE=7508 [Accessed

13/12/2005].

Citation: (National Statistics Online 2005)

Reference:

Office for National Statistics (2005). Employment: Rate rises to 74.9% in

3 months to Sept 05.

http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nugget.asp?ID=12 [Accessed

13/12/2005].

Basic Principles of Referencing Electronic Sources

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In example B, there is no author(s) name(s) shown, so you start with the main

source, e.g. Office for National Statistics (ONS), then add the year the data was

originally published by the ONS, the title of the online screen information, full#p#分页标题#e#

details of the website address and finally the date you visited the site.

EXAMPLE C: Article from a journal or magazine

These will be in two groups: (a) articles that were originally produced in print

form and can be found online; and (b) those that are on-line only.

Article originally produced in print form:

An academic journal article has usually been subject to peer-review scrutiny. The

majority of these articles retrieved from the internet are likely to be reproduced

unabridged from their original printed forms, so the journal details are referenced

as if it was a printed source. You can then simply add Electronic version or

Online to the reference; see fictitious example C1 that follows.

However, if you have any reason to believe changes, amendments or

commentaries have been made from the original print version, you should include

the URL address and the date you accessed the information; see example C2 that

follows.

Article in an online magazine (not available in print form; online only)

Give full details of the name of the magazine, year of publication, title, URL

address, and date you accessed the information. If an authors name was shown,

then start with this. If not, start with name of magazine or journal, as shown in

the example C3 that follows:

C3: Magazine article, no named writer

Example C1

Brown, R. (2006). Plagiarism on the net. [Online] Journal of Referencing

Studies. Summer, pp.266-272.

Example C2

Brown, R. (2006). Plagiarism on the net. [Online] Journal of Referencing

Studies. Summer, pp.266-272. Available at http://www.JRS.org [Accessed 23

Oct. 2006]

Microsoft Windows XP (2006) 25 Best hidden programs. Issue 58, May.

Available at http://www.windowsxpmagazine.co.uk/ [Accessed 19 July 2006).

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EXAMPLE D: Newspaper article

If the name of the journalist or writer is shown, start with this. If not, start with

the name of the online newspaper site. Give the title and date of the item or

article, and the URL address to take the reader to where the article can be found.

Two examples:

Journalist named

Lister, S. (2006). Basic hygiene is failing in a third of NHS hospitals. Times Online.

22 Mar. 2006. Available at TimesOnlinehttp://www.timesonline.co.uk/

article/0,,8122-2097936,00.html [Accessed 24 July 2006]

No journalist named

Times Online (2006). On the flight path of dying Ibis. 24 July 2006. Available at

http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3-2282913,00.html [Accessed 24 July

2006].

EXAMPLE E: (Databases for statistical and company data)#p#分页标题#e#

You can use the library Metalib information portal service to gain access to many

useful statistical databases, e.g. Financial Analysis Made Easy (FAME). The

database for statistical and company specific information should always be

named, its publisher, along with the title of report, and date information was

obtained.

However, if the database is password protected there is no point in giving the URL

address; you only give URL addresses in references if the site is publicly

accessible.

The first example that follows is an example of referencing using the FAME

database to focus on just one company.

The second example shows a citation and the reference when FAME was used to

gather and collate data on three separate companies.

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EXAMPLE F: (Quoting from the Internet)

Quoting directly from the Internet (or any other source should be done very

selectively. Wherever possible try and summarise or paraphrase what you have

read.

Quoting an author directly should always be done for a particular purpose, for

example, to convey a sense of the voice of a particular author or organisation;

example:

The reference for this quotation . taken from the Frequently Asked

Questions (FAQ) section of the authors website . would be given as

follows:

Gardner, H. (2005) Domains, FAQ, p.2, Howard Gardner

Homepages, www.howardgardner.com [Accessed 22/04/05].

EXAMPLE G: (Secondary Sources on the Internet)

You will also encounter many Internet sources that summarise or quote indirectly

the words of others. You would treat these Internet sources as secondary

sources (see pages 21-22).

However, Howard Gardner regards the term domain in a completely

different way: The domain in a society can be thought of as the kinds of

roles listed in the Yellow Pages of a phone book- anything from Accounting

to Zoology (Gardner 2005).

1. Citation: (Dixons Group PLC 2004)

Reference:

Dixons Group PLC (2004). Company Report: Profile. Available from

Financial Analysis Made Easy (FAME) database, Bureau Van Dijk

Electronic Publishers. [Accessed via Metalib 13/12/05].

2. Citation: (FAME Database 2005)

Reference: FAME: Financial Analysis Made Easy (2005). Compilation

derived from: Company Annual Reports: PC World; Currys; UniEuro,

FAME database, Bureau Van Dijk Electronic Publishers. [Accessed via

Metalib 22/04/05].

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For example, on the Friends of the Earth (FOE) Internet site, the FOE quote the

Executive Director of Corpwatch and author, Joshua Karliner, as saying that#p#分页标题#e#

51 of the 100 world's largest economies are corporations.

If you were unable to locate the primary source (i.e. Joshua Karliner), to check

the accuracy of this quotation, you could cite the Friends of the Earth site

(although this would not be as reliable as checking out the primary source.

The citation and reference would be as follows:

EXAMPLE H: (Referencing E-mails)

Significant E-mail messages can also be referenced, providing a record is kept.

The following format is recommended:

. Last name of sender, then his or her initials

. Year communication received

. Medium (Email)

. Title or subject of message

. Date communication received

Example:

In this example, as you see, the citation in the assignment would be (Brown,

2004), as the sender (Brown) has communicated information to the recipient

(Neville), who can then use this information as a source in an assignment.

However, you should obtain permission from the sender, if possible, to use the

correspondence for reference purposes, and you should keep a copy of the

correspondence to enable a tutor to read it if required; alternatively, it can be

presented as an appendix item.

Citation: (Karliner, as cited by Friends of the Earth, 2004).

Reference:

Friends of the Earth (2005). Corporates: Corporate Power.

http://www.foe.co.uk/campaigns/corporates/issues/corporate_power/

[Accessed 13/12/2005].

Citation: (Brown 2004)

Reference:

Brown, J. (2004) Email to C. Neville re. citing teaching notes, 12/12/2005.

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EXAMPLE I: (Discussion Lists)

Messages from discussion lists can also be used if they contribute in a significant

way to any assignment. Start with the last name of the sender of the message,

then give his/her initials, year, subject of message, title of discussion list, E-mail

address, date message posted onto site and finally, the date the message was

Accessed by you.

Example:

You will need to keep message(s) on file in case a tutor wishes to see them,

or they can be included as appendix items.

Citation: (Braham 2003)

Reference:

Braham, J. (2003). Skills Audit, LDHEN Discussion List,

[email protected], 22/07/2003 [Accessed 25/07/03].

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Before you look at some example assignments that show referencing in

action, try answering the questions in this referencing quiz.

Look at the following situations that can occur when writing assignments and

decide if a citation is needed at that point in the assignment.#p#分页标题#e#

Yes No

1. You include tables, photos, statistics and diagrams

in your assignment. These may be items directly

copied or which have been a source of collation for

you.

2. When describing or discussing a theory, model or

practice associated with a particular writer.

3. You summarise information drawn from a variety

of sources about what has happened over a period

of time and when the summary is unlikely to be a

cause of dispute or controversy.

4. To give weight or credibility to an argument that

you believe is important and that you summarise

in your assignment.

5. When giving emphasis to a particular idea that has

found a measure of agreement and support

amongst commentators.

6. When pulling together a range of key ideas that

you introduced and referenced earlier in the

assignment.

7. When stating or summarising obvious facts and

when there is unlikely to be any significant

disagreement with your statements or summaries.

8. When using quotations in your assignment.

9. If you copy and paste items from the

Internet where no authors name is shown.

10.When paraphrasing or summarising (in your own

words) another persons idea that you feel is

particularly significant or likely to be a subject of

debate.

See page 67 for answers.

QUIZ

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EXAMPLE ASSIGNMENT (1)

(This is an example of referencing in action. It is a report that contains a range of

sources, including from the Internet. Note where, when and how references are

used to support evidence).

CALL CENTRES IN THE UK: IS THERE A FUTURE FOR THEM? (2.000 words)

INTRODUCTION

This report will look at the future for call centres in Britain. It will look at current

call centre work trends and conditions generally in the UK, use the Yorkshire

region of Britain as an exemplar of trends and will discuss predicted work

opportunities over the next decade.

Call centres are collective forms of teleworking, where a group of people work on

non-domestic premises controlled by a third party. These premises may be called

satellite offices, call centres, computer resources centres and may use workers

employed by the parent company or may use sub-contracted workers for

particular tasks.

THE RISE OF CALL CENTRES

The growth in call centres in the West was encouraged by economic and

technological factors. From the late 1970s the growth of the service sector,

focused the attention of large organisations on communication with customers in

more cost effective and streamlined ways. This growth of a service sector

economy connected with advances in telecommunications and changes in working

practices in Western companies. The logic of call centres was that a centralised#p#分页标题#e#

approach and rationalisation of organisational operations would reduce costs,

whilst producing a standard branded image to the world. The approach naturally

lent itself to large companies with a large, distributed customer bases.

Currently in Britain 800,000 people are employed in 4,000 call centres, but it is

predicted that, despite a loss of jobs to India and elsewhere, by 2005 this will

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grow to a million workers (DTI 2004). Despite this there is still a future for the UK

call centre sector.

CALL CENTRES IN YORKSHIRE

The Yorkshire region of the UK is an example of how call centres can flourish. In

South Yorkshire, there has been large investment in call centre development,

encouraged by EU regional development. Around 6,000 operators are already

employed with companies such as Ventura (3,750 staff), Selflex (1,000) and One-

2-One (300); in Doncaster, BT Cellnet employs 900 staff at its call centre. (PSU

1996).

In West Yorkshire, twenty-five call centres had established in Leeds by 2000,

employing around 15,000 people and occupying 10% of office space available in

the city. Around a third of the Leeds call centres are within traditional single

company financial services and the remainder offer a range of services to their

clients, including retail sales, mobile phones services and road breakdown

services (Yorkshire Post 24.9.98. p.3.). In Bradford, by 2004, around 7,000

people were employed in call centres, and this is expected to rise to 10,000 by

2007 (Bradford Telegraph and Argus 21.06.04. p. 4).

WORK OPPORTUNITIES and WORKING CONDITIONS IN CALL CENTRES

Types of calls are often divided into outbound and inbound. Inbound calls are calls

that are initiated by the customer to obtain information, report a malfunction or

ask for help. This is substantially different from outbound calls where the agent

initiates the call to a customer mostly with the aim to sell a product or a service

to that customer.

Call centre staff are often organized in tiers, with the first tier being largely

unskilled workers who are trained to resolve issues using a simple script. If the

first tier is unable to resolve an issue the issue is escalated to a more highly

skilled second tier. In some cases, there may be third or higher tiers of support.

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A trend originally observed in the US is also becoming apparent in Britain: of a

high and a low end to the services provided. The characteristics of employment

at both ends of this spectrum can be summarised, as shown below:

High End Call Centre Services Low End Call Centre Services

.. Usually involving detailed#p#分页标题#e#

financial services advice,

information and sales

.. Staff recruited for their

knowledge and expertise in these

areas

.. Training of staff a high priority

.. Emphasis on retaining staff

.. Staff reasonably well-paid

.. Operators require little technical

knowledge

.. Generally perform a customer

service role, typically within travel,

retail and leisure industries

.. May involve cold selling

.. Staff not particularly well paid

Turnover of staff as high as 80%

(source: Huws 1999)

However, all is not well in call centres, particularly regarding working conditions.

A report from Income Data Services (IDS 1998) found large variations in pay and

work in UK call centres. This was emphasised in a recent report commissioned by

the Health and Safety Executive that suggested some UK call centres should be

compared to Victorian 'dark satanic mills'. The research found that employees at

the worst call centres felt powerless and tied to their desks. Many complained that

low wages, poor working conditions and repetitive tasks led to poor job

satisfaction and high levels of depression (Management Issues 2005).

It would appear that where the dominant focus in any call centre is on answering

calls as quickly as possible, the stress levels rise. The complaints by customers

about call centre services include those of the length of time in queues,

automated menu systems, premium rate lines, having to communicate with staff

confined to scripts and the lack of continuity of contact with operators between

calls. These quality related problems appear to have risen for a number of

reasons:

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 56

.. The call centre industry is unregulated and no independent body exists to

represent the views of consumers.

.. Call centres often try to match the number of available operators with the

volume of calls coming in, but often the number of calls exceeds this, which

results in long queues.

.. Some call centres judge operators on the number of calls they take, and set

unrealistic targets so customer service suffers.

.. Call centre operators are often given a script, which is meant to cover all

possible scenarios, so are unable to give an answer to an unscripted query.

.. Operators at offshore call centres do not necessarily have the knowledge of

UK culture and language to answer every customer query (BBC 2004).

However, there appears to be an increasing recognition of the need for UK call

centres to improve the quality of customer experiences. For many businesses, the

call centres become the yardstick by which they are judged. In a competitive

situation, a customer who has had a poor experience is likely to take his or her#p#分页标题#e#

business elsewhere.

THE FUTURE FOR CALL CENTRES

At one time in the recent past, the call centre industry in Europe was dubbed a

bubble market after a study into the future of call centres by the London based

economic consultants, Business Strategies, warned that the growth of Internet

and automatic voice response technology will make call centre operators

redundant (Business Strategies 2000). Another communications company, the

OTR Group, suggested around the same time, that one in five jobs in all call

centres in Europe would disappear over the next decade (Financial Times 1999).

The increasing use of automatic voice response technology (AVR) was thought to

reduce the need for direct operator interventions, and that the growth of Internet

sales would reduce operator-customer contacts.

However, in recent years this prediction has been revised. AVR technology is

currently unpopular with many callers, who often prefer more human interaction.

In Britain, the Yorkshire and Tyneside accents are popular with callers from within

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 57

the UK and from other countries, and call centres report that customers from

other countries, particularly the USA, are noticeably inclined to lengthen their call

times to engage Northern British operators in friendly discussion. British Asian call

centre operators are particularly in demand to communicate with customers who

speak no English. The relative low cost of commercial property and lower wages,

compared to the South of England, is also cited as attractive factor with

employers, and particularly with the public sector.

As mentioned earlier, another more serious potential threat to many UK call

centre jobs comes with the increasing globalisation of work and multinational

companies have subcontracted work to English speaking countries in South East

Asia. In July 2003, the market intelligence company, Key Note, predicted that that

by 2008 the UK would lose 97,000 call centre jobs to the Indian sub continent (ELogistics

2003). British Telecom currently gets much of its data entry work done

in India and British Airways has established a call centre in Bombay to handle its

bookings (The Observer 2003).

It is certainly true that UK call centre jobs have been lost as employers look to cut

costs and relocate overseas. However, USDAW, one of the main trade unions, in

the call centre industry has drawn attention to differences in the levels of service

between UK and overseas call centres. Referring to studies conducted by a

research firm, ContactBabel of 290 UK call centre directors and managers, and of

44 Indian call centre operation, they highlighted that:

. on average, UK agents answer 25 per cent more calls each hour than their#p#分页标题#e#

Indian counterparts, and resolve 17 per cent more of these calls first time;

. UK call centre workers tend to stay with their company for well over three

years, while the burn out rates in this 亽1 billion a year industry in India are

extremely high, with an estimated one in three workers quitting within a year.

. more than a third of callers to India have to ring back at least a second time

(UK has a first-time resolution rate of over 90 per cent);

. almost a third of Indian call centres do not measure customer satisfaction,

while very few perform any pro-active quality checking (USDAW 2004).

It does appear then, that the call centre industry in India appears now to be

encountering some of the same problems that emerged in the West and is finding

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 58

it harder to retain workers as the economy there strengthens and career options

for well-qualified workers increase. Operators working at a distance from

customers are also likely to feel remote from them: physically, socially and

culturally. There is no shared understanding of place and society that often

underpins discussion between people from similar geographical backgrounds (The

Observer 2003).

The recent DTI report suggests that the expansion of call centre services in the

UK is likely to be in the realm of more specialisation, with UK call centre operators

offering a more informed advisory and information services. UK operators are also

likely to be expected to use, at least in the short to medium tems, a wider range

of communication technology, than operators in other countries (DTI 2004).

A likely scenario for the future of call centres globally is one where call centres

use a mixture of Internet and operator services. By 2010, it is estimated that 900

million people worldwide will be using the Internet and already a quarter of UK

call centres have staff dealing with Email communications from customers.

Developments, such as Computer Telephony Integration (CTI) and Internet

provision enables call centres to diversify their products and services. CTI

enables call centres to offer support services to the online retail market. Although

only a small percentage of sales in the UK are currently conducted through the

Internet, this market is growing rapidly. Call centre staff will need to develop

more advanced computer skills in the future and are likely to communicate both

by Email and verbally with customers.

CONCLUSION

The future for call centres in Britain is certainly not as gloomy as predicted in the

late 1990s, provided that call centres respond to the need for more personal,

more responsive and bi-lingual modes of contact with customers. There is a

particularly need in Britain, to offer more specialist bi-lingual services to#p#分页标题#e#

customers and particularly Asian language services in multi-ethnic areas.

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 59

Bibliography

Asia Business Today (2006). Outsourcing: Is India to be Blamed?

http://www.asiabusinesstoday.org/briefings/ [Accessed 11/01/2006].

BBC (2004). Brassed Off Britain: Call Centres.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/bob/callcentres/ [Accessed 09/08/2004].

Business Strategies (2000). Tomorrows Call Centres: a research study.

www.business-strategies.co.uk [Accessed 02/01/2001].

DTI: Department for Trade and Industry (2004) The UK Contact Centre Industry:

a study, London: Department for Trade and Industry.

E-Logistics (2003). Call centres - an inexorable flight?

http://www.elogmag.com/magazine/29/call-centres.shtml, [Accessed 20/6/04].

Financial Times. 23.8.1999, p.3.

Health and Safety Executive (2004). Psychosocial Working Conditions in Great

Briain in 2004. London: Health and Safety Executive.

Huws, U (1993). Teleworking in Britain: a Report to the Employment Department.

Research Series No 18, Oct 1993. London: Department of Employment.

Huws, U (1996). eWorking: an Overview of the Research. London: Department of

Trade and Industry.

Huws, U (1999). Virtually There: The Evolution of Call Centres. Report: Mitel

Telecom Ltd.

IDS: Income Data Services (1998). Pay and Conditions in Call Centres 1996.

www.incomesdata.co.uk/index.html [Accessed 20/06/2004].

Management Issues (2005). Call Centres are Modern Day Satanic Mills.

http://www.managementissues.

com/display_page.asp?section=researchandid=1063 [Accessed

20/07/2005].

The Observer. Bombay Calling 07/12/2003, p.19.

PSU: Policy Research Unit (1996) Shaping the Future: an economic and labour

market assessment of Yorkshire and Humberside. Leeds Metropolitan University/

Leeds Training and Enterprise Council.

USDAW (2004). Indian vs UK Call Centres: New reports Find Faults in Both.

www.publictechnology.net/modules.php?op=modloadandname=Newsandfile=artic

leandsid=442, [Accessed 20/06/2004].

You will notice the list of sources above is headed

Bibliography. This is because the student has

included items that have been directly cited plus

included other sources that have proven to be useful

as background reading material.

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies#p#分页标题#e#

Effective Learning Service 60

(This is an example of an advanced essay, written in a traditional style, of the

level expected at postgraduate level and which again demonstrates referencing in

action. Note in particular the use of secondary and multiple sources on page 60).

Title:

How can the concepts outlined in the models for managing change be

useful in life planning? Give examples to illustrate your answer.

Change is not made without inconvenience, even from worse to better (Samuel

Johnson). Johnsons observation summarises a paradox that many people feel:

the tension between remaining in a familiar state, or making a change; a change

that is likely to cause some inconvenience, or more likely, uncertainty. Therein

lies the paradox: it is tempting for many people to stay with a situation that has

the comfort of familiarity, rather than risk moving into territory for them as yet

uncharted. But this assumes a choice over the matter. People are often propelled

unwillingly and unexpectedly into situations not of their choosing.

The essay will present and discuss some models for managing change for people

in three broad categories: first, those who exercise discretionary choice over a

given life situation; second, those who are faced with choices they would prefer

not to make, but nevertheless have ultimate control of the process; and third,

those who have change thrust arbitrarily on them by fate in all its many forms.

The examples given will be related to how practitioners charged with the

responsibility of managing or supporting others facing change might support the

change-seekers or change-victims concerned. In a business context these

practitioners are likely to be members of a Human Resources team, but could also

include external trainers, management or life planning consultants.

Change is not received or perceived in a homogeneous way. Gerard Egan, for

example, draws a distinction between discretionary and non-discretionary

change (Egan 1994). In the former, the individual has a choice about change to

make and makes it willingly. The outcome may be inconvenient or challenging,

EXAMPLE ASSIGNMENT (2)

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 61

but the change, nevertheless, is desired and embraced. In the case of nondiscretionary

change, people are faced with situations that are deeply

uncomfortable, but they stay in trouble because it is easier to do so than make

the emotional effort to change. Egan traces the roots of inertia in emotional

passivity, learned helplessness, disorganisation or vicious circle self-defeating

behaviour. The non-discretionary nature of change is because non-change is

likely to result in the person concerned becoming ill or making others suffer. The#p#分页标题#e#

third form of change is by Harold Kushner in his book of the same name: When

Bad Things Happen to Good People (Kushner 1981). These bad things manifest

themselves in crisis, misfortunes or traumas in all their malignant shades. These

things happen because they happen- but some models of change can at least help

in the understanding of process, and support for, those involved.

For those actively wanting and seeking change, Maslows theory of Hierarchy of

Needs (Maslow 1968) offers an explanation as to why individuals seek transition

and change in their lives. As basic and intermediate needs (food, shelter,

affection) are met, aspirations rise, and people reach out to meet more intrinsic

needs, for example, the chance to gain more status at work or opportunity to

develop a new interest. In this situation, the Managing Change Approach

(Coleman 1991) offers a model for plotting the stages involved. Coleman

envisages six steps, including the first trigger step of transition: a sense of

wanting change and being able to identify and articulate the reasons and feelings

for this. This is an important first step, as it allows the decision-maker a sense of

control over the process and gain ownership of the idea. The decision-maker

proceeds then to steps two and three: information gathering, and considering the

options available. This leads to a choice (step four), action (step five) and later a

process of reassessment and evaluation (step six).

For this model to succeed there are, arguably, a number of assumptions to make

about the discretionary decision-makers. Veronica McGivney suggests a number

of favourable determinants in adult lives that can motivate them to return to

formal learning (McGivney 1993), and these can be adapted to connect with the

Coleman model. The first determinant of success for the Coleman model is that

the person concerned has a belief that he or she could cope with the transition

and final change desired. The second is that the person concerned knows, or can

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 62

find out, where to seek the information necessary to make an informed decision.

The third and fourth, crucially, is that the person concerned has enough optimism

about the future to contemplate change . and feels that he or she has some

control over their life. These latter points are critical pre-requisites for those

plotting a life course through the Coleman model of managing change.

The Coleman model connects too, with one advanced by Bill Law in recent years:

a Career Learning Theory, although Law has been at pains to point out that the

theory is relevant to all life choices, not just vocationally biased ones (Law 1997).

Law proposes a four stage model: for managing change: sensing, sifting, focusing#p#分页标题#e#

and understanding. The first three of these connect with Colemans middle and

latter stages, although Law advances his third stage (focusing) by asserting that

this is achieved by a decision maker engaging with three specific questions: is the

choice idea salient; is it valued (in terms of acceptable to self and others); and is

it credible (perceived as a sensible or wise decision by self or others)? Laws

fourth stage: understanding is explained in terms of an individuals ability to

justify overall a particular course of action chosen. This connects with Colemans

first stage, but Law pursues the issue further by arguing understanding also

relates to an ability to identify and explain the relationship of past events to

future action, which forms the basis for sustainable action. The process of

understanding is also about being able to anticipate or visualise the probabilities

or consequences of actions.

Colemans model appears to assume, whilst Laws is more explicit in this respect,

that making choices involves a certain level of risk-taking. Law explicitly points

out that action always entails risk, but that risk can be assessed so that

probabilities are estimated:

Autonomous action must involve some such visualisation (whether

rational or not) of this is what will probably happen if I do this... It

requires the imagination of possible selves in possible futures (p.65).

Perhaps the Coleman and Law models are at their most salient in relation to

confident, intelligent people who are faced with relatively straightforward

economic-related decisions: career, work, accommodation, money. But perhaps

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 63

they are less applicable when considering change in the realms of human

emotion? The role of practitioners however, in these discretionary choice

situations can be one of oiling the wheels of change for decision-maker: including

supplying information, listening, encouraging and generally offering support and

guidance. The process of change is likely to happen without the practitioners

support, but it can happen often faster and more effectively with it.

However, a common scenario is one where a person is faced with stark choice,

particularly of the emotionally charged variety; the choice is often change or

suffer. At one level, there is choice, but has Egan has argued it is of the nondiscretionary

kind. Egan has noted that people in this situation can vacillate and

remain static, rather than face change. This emotional stasis has been related to

both lack of confidence - that a particular choice path will lead to certain desirable

outcomes; or pessimism about outcomes that might follow from the change

(Bandura 1991). In this scenario, the Stages of Change model proposed by#p#分页标题#e#

Prochaska and DiClemente (1984) offers a way of understanding the process of

change . or a relapse back into the old habits. Prochaska and DiClemente related

their model specifically to smoking, but it can be equally applicable to any pattern

of behaviour rooted in addiction, habit or compulsion. In this model, the process

of change begins with contemplation, and the notion that change is for the

better. However, there can be an inner voice that warns: change is risky, so why

change? This can produce oscillation between wanting and not wanting change.

However, whatever the accelerant might prove to be, the person concerned can

commit and be ready for change, which propels them forward, and leads to the

maintenance stage, of maintaining change. The new situation in time becomes

the norm, but there is the possibility of relapse, and going back to the stating

point of the circle.

The practitioner has a particularly key role to play in helping in the process of

reflection at these different stages in the decision-makers life. Egan suggests six

ways of helping people in this situation strengthen self-efficacy to stay on track

with a chosen decision. The first is to help people develop any necessary skills to

succeed in the belief that self-efficacy is based on ability. The second is to offer

feedback on any deficiencies in performance. This helps decision-makers avoid

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 64

situations of self-delusion where they rationalise any lapse or diversion from their

original goals. The third is to help the decision-maker see how a change of

behaviour or direction produces results, which connects with the fourth: about

promoting others as role models of success. Steps five and six are related to

reducing the anxiety faced by people overly fearful of failure: by encouragement

and being generally supportive, and reminding the decision-maker of their original

motivations (Egan 1994).

The third group (the change victims) requires of practitioners the greatest level of

understanding about the anguish of change that people can experience. People

are often unwilling victims of change, including redundancy, sudden bereavement,

financial disaster. Many of the models of change that are applicable to this

situation are similar in tracing a pattern of shock, guilt, bewilderment (or anger),

a search for meaning, then gradual acceptance of the change (see Sinfield (1985)

and Coleman and Chiva (1991), in relation to redundancy; and Kubler-Ross,

(1970), in relation to death and dying). Some of the earliest studies that noted

this pattern date back to the 1930s with studies of unemployment, particularly

the experience of older workers (Eisenberg and Lazarsfield (1938), as cited in#p#分页标题#e#

Sinfield (1985), p.191). These noted then the impact of shock on the newly

unemployed, followed by an active hunt for work, during which the individual is

still optimistic. But when all job-seeking efforts fail, the person becomes anxious

and suffers depression, which can lead to fatalism and adaptation to a narrower

state.

More recent studies have confirmed this pattern still applies today, particularly for

the older worker (see Harrison (1976) for example). Kubler-Ross (1970) and

Coleman and Chiva (1991), both note that anger is often a feature of response to

sudden changes, as well as guilt, self-doubt and depression. The anger is of the

why me variety, and when there is often no rational answer to this question,

depression can follow from the realisation of the powerlessness of individuals in

the path of unstoppable forces.

There is however, a gradual acceptance of and adaptation to the situation. Alvin

Toffler suggests too, that an ability to cope (and recover) from traumatic change

depends on the relative security of other aspects of our lives. He argues that we

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 65

can cope with enormous amounts of change, pressure, complexity and confusion,

provided at least one area of our life remains relatively stable (Toffler 1970). He

suggests that there are five main Stability Zones:

1. Ideas: for example, deeply felt religious beliefs, or strong commitment to a

philosophy, political ideology or cause;

2. Places: places that individuals can relate to, on either a large scale (a

country) or smaller scale, such as home, street or even office;

3. Things: favourite, familiar, comforting possessions, and especially things

related to childhood or emotional events;

4. People: particularly valued and enduring relationships with others,

especially friends;

5. Organisation: institutes, clubs or societies can also offer an important

source of stability and focus for self-identity.

The role of the practitioner with responsibility for managing or supporting change

in all three situations outlined is to firstly ascertain whether the person concerned

is a discretionary or non-discretionary change seeker, or thirdly a change-victim,

as each require different types of help or support, in ways outlined earlier. The

practitioners support for the change-victim can be particularly valuable. This

support can take the form of encouraging the individual to talk through the

change experiences and to release feelings of anger. An understanding of these

stages can help the practitioner locate a stage the change-victim appears to be in

and to assist that person to begin to explore relevant new life options and

possibilities. Tofflers idea of Stability Zones is especially useful in this context too,#p#分页标题#e#

in allowing the person concerned to put change into an overall life perspective and

to value the other more stable parts of their life.

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 66

References

Bandura, A. (1991). Human Agency: The Rhetoric and the Reality. American

Psychologist, 46, pp.157-161.

Coleman, A. and Chiva, A. (1991). Coping with Change- focus on retirement.

London: Health Education Authority

Egan, G. (1994). The Skilled Helper: a problem-management approach to helping.

Belmont: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.

Harrison, R. (1976). The Demoralizing Experience of Prolonged Unemployment.

Department of Employment Gazette, 84, April, pp.330-49.

Kubler-Ross, E. (1970). On Death and Dying. London: Tavistock Publications.

Kushner, H.S. (1981). When Bad Things Happen to Good People. London: Pan

Books.

Law, B. (1996). A Career-Learning Theory, in A.Watts et al, Rethinking Careers

Education and Guidance: Theory, Policy and Practice. London: Routledge.

McGivney, V. (1993). Adult Learners, Education and Training. London:

Routledge/Open University.

Maslow, A (1968). Toward a Psychology of Being. New York: Van Nostrand.

Prochaska and DiClemente (1984). Stages and Processes of Self-Change of

Smoking: Towards an Integrated model of Change. Journal of Consulting and

Clinical Psychology, vol. 51 (3) pp. 390-35.

Sinfield, A. (1985). Being Out of Work. In C.R. Littler (ed.) The Experience of

Work. Aldershot: Gower/Open University.

Toffler, A. (1970). Future Shock. N.Y: Random House.

S

z

a

f

w

o

s

p

b

In this assignment the sources above are

listed under the heading References. This

is because the student has made use of

everything read in preparation for writing the

assignment and cited all the sources in the

text.

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 67

Answers to the quiz on page 52

You had to decide whether a citation in the text was needed in the following

situations.

Yes No

1. You include tables, photos, statistics and

diagrams in your assignment. These may be

items directly copied or which have been a

source of collation for you.

併

2. When describing or discussing a theory, model

or practice associated with a particular writer.

併

3. You summarise information drawn from a variety

of sources about what has happened over a

period of time and when the summary is unlikely

to be a cause of dispute or controversy.

併

4. To give weight or credibility to an argument that

you believe is important and that you summarise

in your assignment.

併

5. When giving emphasis to a particular idea that#p#分页标题#e#

has found a measure of agreement and support

amongst commentators.

併

6. When pulling together a range of key ideas that

you introduced and referenced earlier in the

assignment.

併

7. When stating or summarising obvious facts and

when there is unlikely to be any significant

disagreement with your statements or

summaries.

併

8. When using quotations in your assignment.

併

9. If you copy and paste items from the

Internet where no authors name is shown.

(You should cite the name of the Organisation

or website).

併

10. When paraphrasing or summarising (in your own

words) another persons idea that you feel is

particularly significant or likely to be a subject of

debate.

併

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 68

ENDNOTE

EndNote is a useful bibliographic tool, which can help you keep track of the

books, journals and other sources that you have used to write reports or essays.

If you enter reference information for all of the resources that you use into

EndNote, you can then use the program to create bibliographies for your essays,

theses and dissertations. Once the basic task of manually entering references has

been mastered, you will be able to move on to formatting your bibliography,

linking it to your Microsoft Word documents to create references in the text, and

exporting and importing references, including the University of Bradford Library

Catalogue.

You can use EndNote free on Cluster Room PCs at the University. To buy a copy

of Endnote for personal use, please complete the application form at

www.brad.ac.uk/library/elecinfo/endnote/about.php and take it for validation to

either JB Priestley Building Reception or the School of Management Library

counter. You will be asked to provide proof of your status at the University.

A comprehensive EndNote manual is available in the School of Management and

J B Priestley Libraries. Ask at Reception where to find these.

NEED HELP WITH REFERENCING?

If you need help in referencing any source in an assignment, you

can contact Colin Neville, Effective Learning Officer for the School

and the author of this booklet.

Email: [email protected]

Telephone: (01274) 234414

Visit: room 0.10 Airedale Building, School of Management

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 69

FURTHER READING

These are all the titles in booklets in the Effective Learning series:

1. Return to Part-time Study

2. Return to Full-time Study

3. The First Semester

4. Time Management#p#分页标题#e#

5. Accelerated Learning

6. 20 Tips for Effective Learning

7. Six Steps to Effective Reading

8. Effective Note Making

9. Effective Writing

10.Essay Writing (1) stages of essay writing

11.Essay Writing (2) planning and structuring your essays

12.Essay Writing (3) finding your own voice in essays

13. References and Bibliographies

14. Report Writing

15. Pass Your Exams

16. Your Assignment Results . and how to improve them

17. Presentations

18. Group Work

19. Introduction to Research and Research Methods

20. Foundations of Good Research

21. Writing Your Management Project Report or Dissertation

You can download any of these from the School of Management Homepages:

Resources. Effective Learning link, or contact the Effective Learning Service,

tel. 4414 (internal), Email: [email protected], or visit room 0.10 Airedale

Building at the School of Management.

The booklets can also be found in the School of Management library, in the foyer

of the Airedale Building and in the main entrance/foyer of the Emm Lane building.

In the School of Management and J.B. Priestley libraries, there is a study skills

section at D.371.30281

RECOMMENDED READING:

British Standards Institution (1990). Recommendations for Citing and Referencing

Published Material, BS 5605: 1990. London: BSI.

Bradford University Library, Cite em Right: how to give good bibliographic

references: this is an excellent guide to using references and is available in both a

printed version and on the Internet: available from the University libraries, and

online at www.brad.ac.uk/library/elecinfo/cdrom/cite.pdf

Li, X. and Crane, N. B. (1996). Electronic Styles: a handbook for citing electronic

information. 2nd ed. Medford, N.J.: Information Today.

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 70

Neville, C. (2007). The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding Plagiarism.

Maidenhead: Open University Press (available from August 2007).

Walker, J.R. and Taylor, T (1998) The Columbia Guide to Online Style. New York:

Columbia University Press. (This is a useful guide to referencing all forms of

electronic information).

SOME RECOMMENDED INTERNET SITES ON REFERENCING

For referencing legal sources: The Oxford Standard for Citation of Legal

Authorities at http://denning.law.ox.ac.uk/published/oscola.shtml

For information on how to avoid plagiarism: The Plagiarism Advisory Service

at http://www.jiscpas.ac.uk/

For advice on when and how to cite the work of authors: Central European

University at #p#分页标题#e#http://www.ceu.hu/writing/sources.htm

A useful guide for citing Internet sources: Bournemouth University:

http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library/using/guide_to_citing_internet_sourc.html

More on the Harvard Style of referencing: Bournemouth University:

http://www.bournemouth.ac.uk/library/using/harvard_system.html

OTHER USEFUL STUDY SKILLS GUIDES:

Cottrell, S. (2003) The Study Skills Handbook. London: Palgrave.

(This book contains lots of bite-sized chunks of advice and information presented

in a lively and visually interesting way. This is an excellent general study skills

guide for all undergraduate or postgraduate students).

Giles, K. and Hedge, N. (1998) The Managers Good Study Guide. Milton Keynes:

Open University Press. (This is a study skills guide written for business studies

students and contains advice and information presented in a clear, readable and

subject-specific way).

University of Bradford, School of Management References and Bibliographies

Effective Learning Service 71

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THANKS

The author would like to thank Dr. David Spicer and Dr. Deli Yang at the School of

Management for their help in its initial preparation.

c Colin Neville at the School of Management wrote this booklet. It must not be

copied or reproduced without the permission of the author. Contact:

[email protected]#p#分页标题#e#.

Last amended January 2007.